Biography
Early life
Cao Mao was born on 15 November 241 CE, the third year of Zhengshi, the twenty-fifth day of the ninth month.
He was the son of Cao Lin, Prince Ding of Donghai, and grandson of Cao Pi, Emperor Wen of Wei.
Enfeoffment
In 244 CE, the fifth year of Zhengshi, Cao Mao was enfeoffed as Duke of Gaoguixiang of Tan County.
Succession to the throne
In 254 CE, the sixth year of Jiaping, Sima Shi deposed Cao Fang, who was twenty-three years old.
Sima Shi initially wanted to make Cao Ju, Prince of Pengcheng, emperor.
However, Empress Dowager Guo pointed out that Cao Ju was her husband’s uncle according to ritual, and if Cao Ju succeeded to the throne, her position as Empress Dowager would be removed.
Therefore, she changed it to Cao Mao, Duke of Gaoguixiang, grandson of Cao Pi, as emperor, as the heir of his childless uncle Cao Rui, Emperor Ming of Wei.
The era name was changed to Zhengyuan.
Cao Mao was thirteen years old at the time.
Real power was held first by Sima Shi and then by Sima Zhao.
The arrival in Luoyang
On 2 November 254 CE, the fifth day of the tenth month, Cao Mao arrived at Luoyang, the capital of Wei.
The civil and military officials knelt and bowed to Cao Mao south of Xiyemen.
Cao Mao got out of his carriage and intended to return the courtesy to the officials.
The master of ceremonies said: “You do not need to return courtesy to them.”
Cao Mao said: “I am also a subject.”
When Cao Mao reached Zhiche Gate, he again got out of his carriage.
His attendants said: “According to precedent, you should ride in a carriage into the palace.”
Cao Mao said: “I was summoned by the Empress Dowager, and I do not yet know what she wants.”
Cao Mao walked to Taiji East Hall and paid respects to Empress Dowager Guo.
On that day, Cao Mao formally ascended the throne in Taiji Front Hall.
The succession ceremony
During the succession ceremony, when Cao Mao received the imperial seal, his attitude was arrogant, and when walking, he lifted his feet high.
When Sima Shi heard of this, he was very displeased.
Sima Shi’s death
In 255 CE, the second year of Zhengyuan, in the first month, Sima Shi died of illness while on campaign suppressing Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin’s rebellion in Xuchang.
Sima Zhao, Central Commander, went to see him.
After Sima Shi died, Cao Mao issued an edict ordering Sima Zhao to remain stationed at Xuchang and Fu Gu, Director of the Imperial Secretariat, to lead the main army back to the capital.
However, Fu Gu and Zhong Hui, Gentleman of the Central Secretariat, discussed and suggested that Fu Gu submit a memorial to change it so that Sima Zhao personally led the main army back to the capital.
Cao Mao had no choice but to promote Sima Zhao to Grand General, add Palace Attendant, make him Commander of All Military Forces Within and Without, Director of the Imperial Secretariat, and allow him to wear swords and shoes in the palace, and assist in government.
Sima Zhao declined to wear swords and shoes in the palace.
Sima Zhao’s control
From then on, Sima Zhao increasingly controlled the imperial family.
When he personally led the army to suppress Zhuge Dan’s rebellion, he took Cao Mao and Empress Dowager Guo with him on the campaign.
Literary discussions
Cao Mao often discussed literature with Sima Wang, Wang Shen, Pei Xiu, and Zhong Hui in the East Hall of Taiji Hall.
Cao Mao called Pei Xiu “Elder of the Forest of Scholars” and Wang Shen “Master of Literary Records.”
Cao Mao’s personality was impatient.
Every time he summoned a minister, he required them to arrive immediately.
Pei Xiu and others worked in the palace, so they could arrive in time.
However, Sima Wang worked outside the palace and could not quickly enter the palace.
Therefore, Cao Mao gave him a Pursuing Wind Carriage (ancient high-speed carriage) and five Tiger Guard soldiers.
In this way, whenever lectures were held in the palace, Sima Wang could arrive quickly.
Discussion about Shao Kang
On 22 March 256 CE, the ninth day of the second month of the third year of Zhengyuan, Cao Mao argued with the ministers about which was more excellent: Shao Kang, ruler of Xia, or Liu Bang, Emperor Gaozu of Han.
Cao Mao greatly admired Shao Kang, who had restored the Xia dynasty.
He asked Xun Yi: “After Xia declined (Hou Yi and Han Zhuo had usurped the Xia throne, causing Xia’s rule to be interrupted for several decades), Shao Kang led the old and young of Xia to restore the glory of Yu’s time. Liu Bang was of peasant origin, and later he led a group of heroes to destroy Qin and Xiang Yu and unify the realm. Since both Shao Kang and Liu Bang were rulers of great talent and bold vision, which of them is more capable?”
Xun Yi and others replied: “Only those with high virtue and who follow Heaven’s mandate have the ability to create a new dynasty. Moreover, the difficulty of ‘creating’ and ‘restoring’ is different. Although Shao Kang was capable, he also relied on his ancestors’ legacy to become a restoration ruler. He can be grouped with Liu Xiu, Emperor Guangwu of Han. Therefore, Liu Bang is more excellent than Shao Kang.”
Cao Mao said: “Founding rulers are not necessarily all excellent, and successors are not necessarily all inferior. Although Tang of Shang, King Wu of Zhou, and Liu Bang were all founding rulers who received Heaven’s mandate, their virtue and ability differed greatly. Shao Kang and Wu Ding of Shang were both excellent restoration rulers. Qi of Xia and King Cheng of Zhou were also excellent in civil governance. Comparing these four with Liu Bang, I can only see the advantages of these four, and I completely do not see where they are inferior to Liu Bang. It is just that these four and Liu Bang were in different times, so their achievements differed from Liu Bang’s.”
The ministers eventually agreed with Cao Mao’s view.
Discussion about Yao
On 15 May 256 CE, the fourth day of the fourth month, Cao Mao studied in the Imperial Academy.
During the learning process, Cao Mao asked the scholars: “The ancient sages, with the help of spirits, looked up to observe celestial phenomena and looked down to observe geographical features, thus creating the eight trigrams. Later sages developed the eight trigrams into sixty-four hexagrams and derived numerous lines. However, Xia called this book Lianshan, Shang called it Guicang, and Zhou called it Zhouyi. Why are the names different in different dynasties?”
After listening to the scholars’ lectures on the Book of Changes, Cao Mao had them continue lecturing on the Book of Documents.
Cao Mao asked: “Zheng Xuan said: ‘Investigating antiquity is the same as Heaven, meaning Yao’s position is the same as Heaven.’ Wang Su said: ‘Yao also acted according to ancient ways of governance.’ Which of their views is correct?”
Doctor Yu Jun replied: “These two scholars have different emphases. Therefore, one cannot directly determine which is correct. However, the Book of Documents·Hongfan says: ‘When three people divine, follow the words of two.’ Since Jia Kui, Ma Rong, Wang Su, and others all believe that ‘Yao acted according to ancient ways of governance,’ according to the logic of the Book of Documents·Hongfan, Wang Su’s view is correct.”
Cao Mao asked: “Confucius said: ‘Heaven is supreme, and only Yao can emulate Heaven.’ Yao’s highest virtue lies in emulating Heaven. Therefore, acting according to ancient ways of governance was not Yao’s true purpose.”
They then discussed the matter of the Four Peaks recommending Gun to control the floods.
Cao Mao asked: “A sage ruler should have the advantages of both virtue and talent, thorough consideration, and keen observation. Wang Su said: ‘Yao did not understand Gun, so he let him control the floods.’ If so, can a sage like Yao also make mistakes?”
Yu Jun replied: “Although a sage’s ability far exceeds that of ordinary people, a sage also has certain limitations. Therefore, Yu said: ‘Although philosophers are good at recognizing people, for emperors, recognizing people is difficult.’ However, Yao eventually corrected his mistake and passed his throne to Shun, so he was worthy of being called a sage.”
Cao Mao said: “Only a sage can have a good beginning and end. If there is not even a good beginning, how can one be called a sage? You think that Yao eventually replaced Gun and let Yu control the floods, so he can be considered someone who recognizes people. But the classics say: Those who recognize people can select the worthy and capable to serve as officials. Since Yao let someone like Gun control the floods for nine years, how can Yao be worthy of being called a sage?”
The Ganlu era
On 10 July 256 CE, the first day of the sixth month, Wei changed the era name to Ganlu.
The Hidden Dragon poem
In 259 CE, the fourth year of Ganlu, in the first month, two yellow dragons appeared in a well in Ningling County.
Previously, dragons had also appeared in wells in Dunqiu County, Guanjun County, and Yangxia County.
The ministers all considered this an auspicious sign.
However, Cao Mao did not think so.
He said to the ministers: “The dragon symbolizes the ruler. Now, the dragon is neither in Heaven nor in the fields but is forced to live in a well. This is not a good omen.”
Therefore, Cao Mao wrote a “Hidden Dragon” poem to satirize himself, indicating that he was like a dragon trapped in a well.
After Sima Zhao saw the “Hidden Dragon” poem that Cao Mao wrote, he was very displeased with Cao Mao.
The conflict between ruler and minister intensified.
The attempt to kill Sima Zhao
Cao Mao saw that his power was being weakened by Sima Zhao, and he could hardly suppress the anger in his heart.
On the night of 1 June 260 CE, the sixth day of the fifth month of the fifth year of Ganlu, Cao Mao ordered Li Zhao to deploy soldiers at Lingyun Terrace.
Subsequently, Cao Mao summoned his trusted confidants Wang Shen, Wang Jing, and Wang Ye and invited them to go together to kill Sima Zhao: “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all! I absolutely cannot let him depose me. Now, I will go with you to attack him!”
Wang Jing remonstrated: “In the past, Duke Zhao of Lu could not tolerate Ji Sun’s monopolization of power, so he invited Hou and Zang to attack Ji together. However, Duke Zhao of Lu was finally defeated and fled, ridiculed by the realm. Now, the Sima family has been in power for a long time, and this situation is not just one or two days. Moreover, the palace guards are empty, and the troops are weak. If Your Majesty acts rashly, I am afraid you will not only fail to kill Sima Zhao but also bring disaster upon yourself! I beg Your Majesty to act cautiously.”
Cao Mao took out an edict from his bosom and threw it on the ground: “My mind is made up! Even if I die, so what? Moreover, I may not necessarily die!”
After Cao Mao finished speaking, he went to see Empress Dowager Guo.
The betrayal
Wang Shen and Wang Ye hurried to report to Sima Zhao.
After learning that Cao Mao intended to kill him, Sima Zhao made preparations in advance.
The death
On 2 June 260 CE, the seventh day of the fifth month, Cao Mao learned that his plan to kill Sima Zhao had been leaked.
He had no choice but to sit in a carriage, draw his sword, and charge out with several hundred palace guards and attendants, shouting.
Sima Zhou, Sima Zhao’s younger brother, happened to meet Cao Mao at East Zhiche Gate.
Cao Mao’s attendants loudly scolded Sima Zhou, and Sima Zhou retreated.
Sima Zhao sent his trusted confidant Jia Chong to lead troops into the palace.
They fought with Cao Mao’s guards south of the palace.
Later, Cao Mao shouted while raising his sword: “I want to attack Sima Zhao! Whoever moves, I will exterminate their nine clans!”
He wanted to personally fight with Jia Chong’s subordinates.
Seeing that the emperor himself wanted to fight, Jia Chong’s subordinates could not help but feel like retreating.
They all stopped fighting, and no one dared to step forward to fight Cao Mao.
Seeing this situation, Cheng Ji, Gentleman of the Heir’s Household, asked Jia Chong: “The situation is urgent. What should we do?”
Jia Chong said sternly: “Lord Sima usually supports you to solve today’s matter! What else is there to ask?”
Therefore, Cheng Ji stepped forward and stabbed Cao Mao, piercing his chest.
Cao Mao died on the spot in the carriage, bleeding profusely.
He was nineteen years old.
Aftermath
After Sima Zhao heard the news that Cao Mao had been killed, he collapsed and sat on the ground.
Sima Fu, Sima Zhao’s uncle, lay on Cao Mao’s leg and cried: “Your Majesty’s death is all my fault!”
Subsequently, Sima Zhao summoned the ministers to a meeting.
Chen Tai, Director of the Left of the Imperial Secretariat, did not come.
Sima Zhao sent Xun Yi, Chen Tai’s uncle, to call him.
Chen Tai said: “The world compares me with my uncle. Now it seems my uncle is not as good as me.”
Chen Tai’s family members urged Chen Tai to hurry into the palace.
When Chen Tai saw Sima Zhao, he cried loudly.
Sima Zhao asked Chen Tai: “Xuanbo (Chen Tai’s courtesy name), how do you think this matter should be handled?”
Chen Tai said: “Cut Jia Chong in half at the waist and use his life to apologize to the realm.”
Sima Zhao thought for a long time and continued: “Think of another way.”
Chen Tai said: “I can only think of this way.”
Finally, Sima Zhao blamed Cheng Ji for this incident and killed Cheng Ji and his elder brother Cheng Cui.
The burial
On 3 June 260 CE, the eighth day of the fifth month, Sima Fu, Sima Zhao, Gao Rou, and Zheng Chong memorialized Empress Dowager Guo: “The late Duke of Gaoguixiang (Cao Mao) was rebellious and immoral and brought destruction upon himself. According to the precedent of Huo Guang deposing Liu He, he should only be buried with the rites of a commoner. We hold high positions but could not stop the chaos and could not suppress the evil and rebellious actions. We are deeply afraid.”
Finally, Empress Dowager Guo adopted their suggestion.
Cao Mao was buried with the rites of a prince at Chanjian, thirty li northwest of Luoyang, with only a few carriages and no banners.
The people gathered to watch and said: “This is the Son of Heaven who was killed the day before yesterday.”
Some even covered their faces and wept, unable to control their grief.
Personality
Cao Mao was described as intelligent, talented, and learned.
He was good at writing poetry and prose, and his painting was also quite good.
He was a talented scholar skilled in qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting.
However, he was also described as impatient, impulsive, and lacking in depth.
He was too open about his intentions, which led to his death.
Military achievements
Cao Mao did not have any significant military achievements.
He was a puppet emperor, and real power was held by Sima Shi and Sima Zhao.
Relationships
With Sima Shi
Cao Mao succeeded to the throne after Sima Shi deposed Cao Fang.
Sima Shi initially wanted to make Cao Ju emperor but changed to Cao Mao at Empress Dowager Guo’s request.
With Sima Zhao
After Sima Shi died, Sima Zhao took control of the government.
Cao Mao gradually became dissatisfied with Sima Zhao’s monopolization of power.
He attempted to kill Sima Zhao but was killed instead.
With Wang Shen and Wang Ye
Wang Shen and Wang Ye were Cao Mao’s trusted confidants.
However, they betrayed Cao Mao and reported his plan to Sima Zhao.
With Wang Jing
Wang Jing was also one of Cao Mao’s trusted confidants.
He did not help Cao Mao attack Sima Zhao and tried to stop Cao Mao.
However, he also did not report to Sima Zhao.
After Cao Mao died, Sima Zhao was dissatisfied with Wang Jing’s neutral attitude and executed him.
Anecdotes
The phrase “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all”
When Cao Mao attempted to kill Sima Zhao, he said: “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all! I absolutely cannot let him depose me.”
This phrase has become a famous Chinese idiom meaning that someone’s intentions are obvious to everyone.
The Hidden Dragon poem
Cao Mao wrote a “Hidden Dragon” poem to satirize himself, indicating that he was like a dragon trapped in a well.
This poem showed his dissatisfaction with his situation and his desire to break free.
The discussion about Shao Kang
Cao Mao greatly admired Shao Kang, who had restored the Xia dynasty.
He argued with the ministers about whether Shao Kang or Liu Bang was more excellent.
This discussion showed his desire to restore Wei’s power.
The discussion about Yao
Cao Mao questioned whether Yao was truly a sage, pointing out that Yao had made mistakes in recognizing people.
This showed his critical thinking and his dissatisfaction with the current situation.
The burial
After Cao Mao was killed, Sima Zhao wanted to bury him with the rites of a commoner.
However, at the request of Sima Fu and other important ministers, he was buried with the rites of a prince.
The people gathered to watch and wept, showing their sympathy for Cao Mao.
Achievements
- Attempted to restore imperial power
- Known for literary talent and learning
- Famous for the phrase “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all”
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Cao Mao’s biography appears in the Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Cao Fang and Cao Huan as the “Three Young Emperors.”
The phrase “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all”
This phrase has become one of the most famous Chinese idioms.
It is used to describe situations where someone’s intentions are obvious to everyone.
The death
Cao Mao’s death was a significant event in Chinese history.
It marked the complete control of the Sima family over Wei and paved the way for the eventual establishment of the Jin dynasty.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Zhong Hui said: “His literary talent is like Chen Si (Cao Zhi), and his military ability is like Taizu (Cao Cao).”
Sima Shi said: “If this is indeed so, it is fortunate for the state.”
Sun Sheng wrote: “He was intelligent and handsome, and his virtuous voice was clear and bright.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “He was impatient by nature. The Duke of Gaoguixiang was talented and intelligent from childhood, liked to ask questions and valued literature, similar to Emperor Wen’s style. However, he was impulsive and reckless and brought great disaster upon himself.”
Liu Xie wrote: “The young rulers succeeded one another. Only the Duke of Gaoguixiang was intelligent and elegant. When he looked around, he contained literary beauty. When he spoke, he formed discussions.”
Legacy
Cao Mao is remembered as the emperor who attempted to kill Sima Zhao but was killed instead.
His phrase “Sima Zhao’s heart is known to all” has become one of the most famous Chinese idioms.
His death marked the complete control of the Sima family over Wei and paved the way for the eventual establishment of the Jin dynasty.
Timeline
- 241 CE: Born 15 November; son of Cao Lin
- 244 CE: Enfeoffed as Duke of Gaoguixiang of Tan County
- 254 CE: Succeeded Cao Fang age 13; era name Zhengyuan; Sima Shi as regent
- 255 CE: Sima Shi died; Sima Zhao took control; made Empress Bian empress
- 256 CE: Era name Ganlu; discussed Shao Kang and Yao with ministers
- 259 CE: Wrote “Hidden Dragon” poem; dragons appeared in wells
- 260 CE: Attempted to kill Sima Zhao; killed by Cheng Ji age 19; buried with prince’s rites
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 4, Biography of the Three Young Emperors.
- Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, various chapters.