Introduction
Ma Liang (simplified: 马良, traditional: 馬良, pinyin: Mǎ Liáng), courtesy name Jichang (季常), was a Shu Han Palace Attendant (侍中) and diplomat who served Liu Bei. Originally from Xiangyang Commandery, Ma Liang was one of the “Five Ma brothers” (马氏五常), all of whom had talent and reputation. Ma Liang was the most outstanding among them and was known for having white hair in his eyebrows, leading to the saying “Among the Five Ma brothers, the white-browed one is the best” (马氏五常，白眉最良). He served as a diplomat and envoy for Liu Bei, particularly in relations with Eastern Wu, and died at the Battle of Yiling in 222.
Biography
Early life
Ma Liang was born in 187 in Yicheng (宜城), Xiangyang Commandery (襄阳郡), in present-day Yicheng, Hubei. He had four brothers, and all five brothers had talent and reputation. Their courtesy names all contained the character “chang” (常): Ma Bichang (马伯常), Ma Zhongchang (马仲常), Ma Shuchang (马叔常), Ma Liang (马季常), and Ma Su (马幼常).
Ma Liang had white hair in his eyebrows, and among the five brothers, his ability was the most outstanding. Therefore, the people of his hometown had a saying: “Among the Five Ma brothers, the white-browed one is the best” (马氏五常，白眉最良).
Service under Liu Bei
In 209, when Liu Bei became Governor of Jing Province, he recruited Ma Liang as a Gentleman Consultant (從事). Ma Liang served Liu Bei in various capacities, often acting as a diplomat and envoy.
In 211, when Liu Bei entered Yi Province to help Liu Zhang fight Zhang Lu, Zhuge Liang also followed later. Ma Liang remained in Jing Province with Guan Yu to guard it.
After Luocheng was captured, Ma Liang wrote a letter to Zhuge Liang saying: “I have heard that Luocheng has been captured. This is Heaven’s blessing. My respected elder brother has responded to the times and assisted the world, matching achievements and glorifying the state. The signs are far-reaching. To flexibly use elegant considerations and carefully examine what is valuable to show clarity, in order to select talent, it is appropriate to suit the times. If you can harmonise light and please those far away, spread virtue to Heaven and Earth, make the times listen attentively, and make the world submit to the Way, harmonise the high and wonderful sounds, correct the sounds of Zheng and Wei, and benefit all affairs without interfering with each other, this is the ultimate in strings and pipes, the harmony of Ya and Kuang. Although I am not like Zhong Qi, how dare I not beat the rhythm!” In the letter, he addressed Zhuge Liang as “elder brother” (尊兄).
Diplomatic mission to Eastern Wu
Later, Liu Bei appointed Ma Liang as Clerk of the Left General (左將軍掾). Soon after, Ma Liang was sent on a diplomatic mission to Eastern Wu. Ma Liang wrote a letter saying: “My humble lord sends Clerk Ma Liang to establish friendly relations and continue good relations, to carry on the achievements of Kunwu and Shiwei. This person is a good scholar, a fine man of Jing and Chu, rarely showing hasty brilliance but having the beauty of completion. I hope you will condescend to accept him and comfort him in completing his mission.”
Sun Quan treated Ma Liang with great respect.
Service as Palace Attendant
In 221, when Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established Shu Han, he appointed Ma Liang as Palace Attendant (侍中).
Mission to the Wuxi tribes and death
In 221, when Liu Bei prepared to campaign against Eastern Wu, he sent Ma Liang to Wuling to recruit the Wuxi tribes (五溪蛮). Ma Liang successfully persuaded most of the tribal leaders to accept Shu Han’s official seals and titles and submit to Shu Han. Everything was under Ma Liang’s control.
However, in 222, Liu Bei was badly defeated at the Battle of Yiling, and Ma Liang was killed in the battle.
After Ma Liang’s death, Liu Bei enfeoffed Ma Liang’s son Ma Bing (马秉) as Commandant of the Cavalry (騎都尉).
Personality and traits
Virtues and abilities
Ma Liang was known for his talent and reputation, being the most outstanding among the Five Ma brothers. He was skilled in diplomacy and was able to successfully recruit the Wuxi tribes to support Liu Bei’s campaign. He was also known for his loyalty and his ability to maintain good relations with Eastern Wu.
Temperament
Ma Liang was known for being honest and reliable (贞实). He was respected by his contemporaries and was considered a fine scholar. His diplomatic skills and his ability to handle delicate situations were highly valued by Liu Bei.
Physical appearance
Ma Liang was known for having white hair in his eyebrows, which made him distinctive among his brothers and led to the saying “Among the Five Ma brothers, the white-browed one is the best.”
Political achievements
Diplomatic contributions
Ma Liang’s most significant contributions were his diplomatic missions. He successfully completed a mission to Eastern Wu, earning Sun Quan’s respect, and he successfully recruited the Wuxi tribes to support Liu Bei’s campaign against Eastern Wu.
Service as envoy
Throughout his career, Ma Liang frequently served as an envoy and diplomat, travelling on missions for Liu Bei. His skills in diplomacy and his trusted relationship with Liu Bei made him well-suited for these important tasks.
Relationships
Family
Ma Liang had four brothers, all of whom had talent and reputation. Their courtesy names all contained the character “chang”: Ma Bichang (eldest), Ma Zhongchang (second), Ma Shuchang (third), Ma Liang (fourth, Jichang), and Ma Su (youngest, Youchang). Ma Liang was the most outstanding among them.
Ma Liang’s youngest brother Ma Su (马谡) later served as an Army Adviser under Zhuge Liang but was executed by Zhuge Liang for losing Jieting.
Ma Liang’s son Ma Bing (马秉) was enfeoffed as Commandant of the Cavalry after Ma Liang’s death.
Lord and vassals
Ma Liang served Liu Bei faithfully from 209 until his death in 222. He was one of Liu Bei’s trusted officials and was often sent on important diplomatic missions. His relationship with Zhuge Liang was particularly close, as he addressed Zhuge Liang as “elder brother” in his letter.
Allies and rivals
Ma Liang had a good relationship with Sun Quan of Eastern Wu, who treated him with great respect during his diplomatic mission. However, this relationship was tested when Liu Bei decided to campaign against Eastern Wu, and Ma Liang was sent to recruit the Wuxi tribes to support the campaign.
Anecdotes and allusions
The Five Ma brothers
Ma Liang was one of five brothers, all of whom had talent and reputation. Their courtesy names all contained the character “chang,” and Ma Liang was the most outstanding among them. Because he had white hair in his eyebrows, the people of his hometown said: “Among the Five Ma brothers, the white-browed one is the best” (马氏五常，白眉最良).
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Letter to Zhuge Liang
After Luocheng was captured, Ma Liang wrote a letter to Zhuge Liang praising his achievements and addressing him as “elder brother” (尊兄). This demonstrates Ma Liang’s respect for Zhuge Liang and their close relationship.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Diplomatic mission to Eastern Wu
Ma Liang was sent on a diplomatic mission to Eastern Wu and wrote a letter introducing himself. Sun Quan treated him with great respect, demonstrating Ma Liang’s diplomatic skills and the importance of his mission.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Mission to the Wuxi tribes
In 221, when Liu Bei prepared to campaign against Eastern Wu, he sent Ma Liang to Wuling to recruit the Wuxi tribes. Ma Liang successfully persuaded most of the tribal leaders to accept Shu Han’s official seals and titles and submit to Shu Han. However, Ma Liang was killed when Liu Bei was defeated at the Battle of Yiling.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Achievements
Ma Liang’s major accomplishments include:
- Being recognised as the most outstanding among the Five Ma brothers
- Successfully completing diplomatic missions to Eastern Wu, earning Sun Quan’s respect
- Successfully recruiting the Wuxi tribes to support Liu Bei’s campaign against Eastern Wu
- Serving as a trusted Palace Attendant under Liu Bei
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Ma Liang is documented in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志) by Chen Shou, specifically in the “Biography of Dong He, Liu Ba, Ma Liang, Chen Zhen, Dong Yun, and Lü Yi” (董刘马陈董吕传). Additional information comes from Pei Songzhi’s annotations.
Historical vs literary portrayal
In the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Ma Liang’s portrayal is expanded. He is depicted as advising Liu Bei on strategy for conquering the four commanderies of southern Jing Province, suggesting the order of attack. He also serves as a strategist during Guan Yu’s campaigns and warns Liu Bei about Lu Xun’s abilities during the campaign against Eastern Wu. He is shown carrying a map to consult Zhuge Liang, who predicts the defeat at Yiling. However, the novel incorrectly places Ma Liang’s death during Zhuge Liang’s southern campaign, when in fact he died at the Battle of Yiling.
Scholarly debates
There is some debate about Ma Liang’s exact role in Liu Bei’s campaigns and the extent of his diplomatic contributions. However, his success in recruiting the Wuxi tribes is consistently recognised as an important achievement.
Personality analysis
Modern scholars have noted Ma Liang’s diplomatic skills and his ability to maintain good relations with Eastern Wu while also supporting Liu Bei’s campaigns. His death at the Battle of Yiling is seen as a significant loss for Shu Han, as he was one of Liu Bei’s most trusted diplomats.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary assessments
Zhuge Liang: “Jiang Boyue [Jiang Wei] is loyal and diligent in current affairs, and his thinking is precise and detailed. Examining all that he has, Yongnan [Li Shao], Jichang [Ma Liang], and others are not as good as him. This person is a superior scholar of Liang Province.”
Chen Shou: “Dong He followed the simplicity of lambs, Liu Ba maintained a pure and lofty character, Ma Liang was honest and reliable, and was called a fine scholar. Chen Zhen was loyal and respectful, becoming more sincere as he aged. Dong Yun assisted his lord, and righteousness showed in his expression. All were fine ministers of Shu.”
Yang Xi: “Jichang [Ma Liang] was honest and reliable, Wenjing [Wei Wenjing] was diligent and similar, Shiyuan [Han Shiyuan] spoke with rules, Churen [Zhang Churen] heard strategies, Kongxiu [Yin Kongxiu] and Wenxiang [Xi Wenxiang] had talent or were good. They spread and related their aspirations, like orchids of Chu.”
Chen Shou’s evaluation
Chen Shou wrote: “Dong He followed the simplicity of lambs, Liu Ba maintained a pure and lofty character, Ma Liang was honest and reliable, and was called a fine scholar. Chen Zhen was loyal and respectful, becoming more sincere as he aged. Dong Yun assisted his lord, and righteousness showed in his expression. All were fine ministers of Shu.”
Pei Songzhi’s commentary
Pei Songzhi’s annotations provide additional context about Ma Liang’s diplomatic missions and his relationship with Liu Bei and Zhuge Liang.
Later dynasty evaluations
Later historians have generally praised Ma Liang for his diplomatic skills and his loyalty to Liu Bei. His death at the Battle of Yiling is seen as a significant loss for Shu Han.
Modern scholarship
Modern scholars have emphasised Ma Liang’s importance as one of Liu Bei’s most trusted diplomats. His success in recruiting the Wuxi tribes demonstrates his diplomatic skills, while his death at the Battle of Yiling represents a significant loss for Shu Han’s diplomatic capabilities.
Legacy
Cultural significance
Ma Liang is remembered as one of the Five Ma brothers and as one of Liu Bei’s most trusted diplomats. The saying “Among the Five Ma brothers, the white-browed one is the best” has become a famous expression in Chinese culture, used to describe someone who stands out among a group of talented people.
Symbolism and folklore
Ma Liang is sometimes used as an example of someone who stands out among talented siblings due to distinctive physical features (white eyebrows) and superior abilities. His diplomatic skills and loyalty are also seen as exemplary qualities.
Memorial sites
In present-day Chengdu, Sichuan, at the Wuhou Shrine (武侯祠), there is a statue of Ma Liang in the “Civil Officials Corridor” (文臣廊), ranking thirteenth among the fourteen civil official statues, created in 1849 during the Qing Dynasty.