Cao Cao (simplified: 曹操, traditional: 曹操, pinyin: Cáo Cāo), courtesy name Mengde (孟德 Mèngdé), was a warlord, statesman, military strategist and poet who dominated the final decades of the Han dynasty. Through a combination of political acumen and military prowess, he unified most of northern China and established the institutional foundations of the Wei kingdom, which his son Cao Pi would formally proclaim in 220 CE. Although Cao Cao never claimed the imperial throne himself, he was posthumously honoured as Emperor Wu of Wei (魏武帝 Wèi Wǔdì) with the temple name Taizu (太祖 Tàizǔ, ‘Grand Ancestor’).
Biography
Early life (155–174 CE)
Cao Cao was born in 155 CE in Qiao County in the state of Pei (modern Bozhou, Anhui Province). His father, Cao Song, was the adopted son of the influential eunuch Cao Teng, who had served four emperors and risen to the rank of Central Regular Attendant and Empress’s Chamberlain under Emperor Huan. Cao Teng held the peerage of Marquis of Fei Village. Through this connection, Cao Song eventually purchased the position of Grand Commandant, one of the Three Excellencies of the Han court, though he served less than half a year in this role. The Cao family claimed descent from the Han dynasty minister Cao Shen.
As a youth, Cao Cao was known by his childhood name Aman (阿瞒) and his milk name Jili (吉利). He was described as clever, perceptive, and manipulative, with a fondness for hunting, roaming freely, and unconventional behaviour that caused his elders concern. His uncle frequently complained about him to Cao Song. On one occasion, Cao Cao feigned a stroke when his uncle passed by; the uncle rushed to inform Cao Song, but when Cao Song arrived, Cao Cao appeared perfectly normal and claimed he had never been ill. After this incident, Cao Song no longer believed his brother’s reports about Cao Cao, allowing the youth to act even more freely.
At the age of ten, Cao Cao reportedly encountered a crocodile while swimming in a pond near his home. Rather than fleeing in terror, he faced the creature directly and drove it away. He did not mention the incident to his family, but later, when an adult showed fear at the sight of a snake, Cao Cao laughed and recounted his own encounter with the crocodile.
From the time Cao Cao was fifteen until he turned thirty, widespread epidemic diseases ravaged China on average one out of every three years, an experience that may have shaped his later pragmatic approach to governance.
Despite his unconventional behaviour, several prominent figures recognised Cao Cao’s potential. Qiao Xuan told him: ‘The realm is about to descend into chaos. Only a man of supreme ability can bring it under control. That man will be you.’ He Yong and Li Zan also praised his extraordinary talents. At Qiao Xuan’s suggestion, Cao Cao sought out the renowned physiognomist Xu Shao to enhance his reputation. Xu Shao initially refused to assess him, but after persistent questioning, he finally delivered his famous evaluation: ‘You would be a capable minister in times of peace, and a cunning hero in times of chaos’ (治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄). Another version records: ‘A treacherous villain in times of peace, and a hero in times of chaos.’ Cao Cao was delighted with this assessment and gradually became known throughout the realm.
Cao Cao displayed martial prowess from an early age. His strength exceeded that of ordinary men; he could shoot birds in flight and capture fierce beasts with his bare hands. Once at Nanpi, he shot sixty-three pheasants in a single day. He also reportedly infiltrated the residence of the powerful eunuch Zhang Rang and, when discovered, escaped by wielding a halberd and vaulting over the wall.
Early career (174–189 CE)
Around 174 CE, Cao Cao was nominated as a xiaolian (filial and incorrupt) and entered the civil service as a Gentleman Cadet. He was soon appointed Commandant of the North District of Luoyang, responsible for maintaining order in that district of the imperial capital. Luoyang was home to powerful nobles and imperial relatives, making it notoriously difficult to govern.
Upon assuming office, Cao Cao demonstrated his commitment to impartial law enforcement by having five-coloured staffs made and hung at the four gates of his office with a declaration that any violator of the law would be beaten to death regardless of status. When Jian Shuo, the uncle of the powerful eunuch Jian Shuo who was favoured by Emperor Ling, violated the night curfew, Cao Cao had him beaten to death with the staffs. After this, order was restored in his district and no one dared break the law. However, this action earned him the enmity of powerful eunuchs, who arranged for him to be transferred to the less prestigious position of Prefect of Dunqiu County (in modern Qingfeng County, Henan).
In 178 CE, Cao Cao’s cousin had married Song Qi, a relative of Empress Song. When Emperor Ling deposed the empress following a political scandal, Cao Cao was implicated through this connection and dismissed from office. He was later pardoned and recalled to Luoyang to serve as a Consultant under the Minister of the Household due to his expertise in history.
During this period, Cao Cao submitted memorials to Emperor Ling criticising the corruption of the Three Ducal Ministers, who protected underperforming officials in exchange for bribes while the poor and weak suffered. He also defended the reputations of Dou Wu and Chen Fan, who had been killed after their plot to eliminate the eunuch faction failed. Emperor Ling was moved by his memorial and took some action against corruption, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Cao Cao eventually ceased speaking out when he realised his efforts were futile.
In 184 CE, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion erupted, the Han government commissioned Cao Cao as a Cavalry Commandant and ordered him to lead forces against the rebels in Yingchuan Commandery. He was subsequently appointed Chancellor of Jinan State in Qing Province, a principality with over ten counties under its jurisdiction. Many officials there had connections with nobles and engaged in corrupt practices. Cao Cao proposed dismissing about eighty percent of them, and upon learning of his arrival, many corrupt officials fled to neighbouring commanderies in fear of his strict enforcement. He governed Jinan well, destroyed over 600 temples that had been built for the worship of local strongmen, and banned the idolatrous practices that had created inequality between rich and poor.
After serving as chancellor, Cao Cao was offered the position of Administrator of Dong Commandery but declined on grounds of poor health and returned home. Corruption had become so rampant that Cao Cao feared bringing trouble to his family by continuing to interfere with powerful interests. He built a house outside the city and lived in semi-retirement, spending spring and summer reading and autumn and winter hunting.
During this period, Wang Fen, the Inspector of Ji Province, along with Xu You and others, plotted to overthrow Emperor Ling and install the Marquis of Hefei as emperor. They invited Cao Cao to join them, but he refused. The plot ultimately failed.
When the Liang Province Rebellion broke out, Cao Cao was appointed Colonel Who Arranges the Army and summoned to Luoyang to serve in the Army of the Western Garden, a new military force created by Emperor Ling.
Opposing Dong Zhuo (189–192 CE)
Emperor Ling died in 189 CE and was succeeded by his young son Liu Bian, known historically as Emperor Shao. The General-in-Chief He Jin, the empress dowager’s brother, plotted with Yuan Shao to eliminate the eunuch faction. When Empress Dowager He hesitated, He Jin proposed summoning external military forces to the capital to pressure her. Cao Cao strongly objected to this plan, arguing that the best approach was simply to arrest and execute the eunuch leaders, and that summoning outside forces would increase the risk of their plot being discovered. He Jin ignored this advice.
As Cao Cao predicted, the eunuchs learned of the plot and assassinated He Jin before the external forces arrived. Yuan Shao and He Jin’s followers then stormed the palace and massacred the eunuchs. During the chaos, Emperor Shao and his half-brother Liu Xie fled the palace and were eventually found by Dong Zhuo, who used the opportunity to seize control of the government. Later that year, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and installed Liu Xie as Emperor Xian.
Dong Zhuo sought to recruit Cao Cao, offering him the position of Colonel of Valiant Cavalry. Cao Cao refused, adopted a false identity, and escaped from Luoyang. On his journey home, he passed through Zhongmu County, where a village chief suspected him of being a fugitive and arrested him. Another official recognised Cao Cao and, believing he could be a positive influence, released him.
Another incident during his flight involved the family of Lü Boshe, an old acquaintance. Cao Cao killed members of Lü Boshe’s household, though the circumstances and motivations vary considerably between accounts.
Upon returning to Chenliu Commandery, Cao Cao spent his family fortune raising an army to oppose Dong Zhuo. In the winter of 189 CE, he assembled his forces in Jiwu County and declared war on the tyrant.
In early 190 CE, regional officials and warlords formed a coalition army numbering tens of thousands to launch a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. Yuan Shao was elected as the coalition chief, while Cao Cao served as acting General of Uplifting Martial Might. The coalition scored initial victories and reached Luoyang within months. Dong Zhuo, alarmed by his losses, ordered the forced relocation of Luoyang’s residents to Chang’an and burned the imperial capital, leaving nothing for the coalition.
While Dong Zhuo was retreating, Cao Cao led his army in pursuit but was defeated by Xu Rong at the Battle of Xingyang. This was Cao Cao’s first military command, and he barely escaped with his life, saved by his cousin Cao Hong. He returned to the coalition base at Suanzao County, disgusted to find the other coalition members making merry rather than planning their next move. He presented his strategy for continuing the campaign and criticised their lacklustre attitudes, but they ignored him.
With few troops remaining after his defeat, Cao Cao travelled to Yang Province with Xiahou Dun to recruit soldiers. Chen Wen, the Inspector of Yang Province, and Zhou Xin, the Administrator of Danyang Commandery, provided him with over 4,000 troops. On the return journey, many soldiers mutinied at Longkang County and set fire to Cao Cao’s tent at night, but he escaped. By the time he reached Zhi and Jianping counties, he had regrouped about 1,000 soldiers.
When Yuan Shao and Han Fu proposed installing Liu Yu as emperor to replace Emperor Xian, Cao Cao refused to support the plan and reaffirmed his loyalty to the legitimate emperor. On another occasion, Yuan Shao showed Cao Cao a jade seal, implying imperial ambitions. Cao Cao found this contemptible and laughed at him.
Rise to prominence (192–196 CE)
Between 191 and 192 CE, Yuan Shao appointed Cao Cao Administrator of Dong Commandery in Yan Province, his first territorial command and the beginning of his career as a warlord. He defeated the Heishan bandits and Southern Xiongnu forces in the region.
When Yellow Turban remnants swarmed into Yan Province from Qing Province, Liu Dai, the Governor of Yan Province, was killed fighting them. Bao Xin, Chen Gong, and others invited Cao Cao to replace Liu Dai. Cao Cao defeated the rebels and received the surrender of over 300,000 rebels along with their families. From among them, he recruited the most battle-hardened warriors to form the Qingzhou Army (青州兵), which would serve as the elite core of his forces for years.
In the spring of 193 CE, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu at the Battle of Fengqiu. Between 193 and 194 CE, he came into conflict with Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province. The first attack occurred in autumn 193 CE after Tao Qian supported a rebel who had declared himself emperor. The second and third invasions were triggered by the murder of Cao Cao’s father, Cao Song, in Xu Province as he was travelling to Qiao County after his retirement. Although Tao Qian’s culpability was uncertain, Cao Cao held him responsible. During these campaigns, Cao Cao’s forces conquered several territories and massacred thousands of civilians. After one massacre, the corpses of his victims blocked the Si River.
In 194 CE, while Cao Cao was campaigning in Xu Province, his subordinates Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebelled and defected to Lü Bu. Most of Yan Province followed suit except for a few loyal counties. Cao Cao aborted his Xu Province campaign and returned to fight Lü Bu. At Puyang County, he fell into an ambush and suffered burns but escaped. The two warlords were locked in stalemate for over 100 days until natural disasters disrupted Lü Bu’s supplies and forced him to withdraw.
Grain was so scarce during this period that Cao Cao considered accepting an offer to serve under Yuan Shao, but his advisors dissuaded him. From 194 to late 195 CE, Cao Cao systematically retook his territories from Lü Bu, who fled east to take refuge under Liu Bei in Xu Province. In winter 195 CE, the Han government officially designated Cao Cao as Governor of Yan Province.
Welcoming the emperor (196 CE)
Emperor Xian had been held hostage in Chang’an by Li Jue, Guo Si, and other former followers of Dong Zhuo. Around 195 CE, internal conflict broke out among these warlords, allowing Emperor Xian to escape and eventually return to the ruins of Luoyang. There he came under the protection of various petty strongmen, living in desperate circumstances. Yuan Shao rejected the emperor’s appeal for refuge.
In early 196 CE, acting on the advice of Xun Yu and Cheng Yu, Cao Cao sent forces to welcome Emperor Xian. After defeating Yellow Turban remnants in Runan and Yingchuan commanderies, he was appointed General Who Establishes Virtue, then promoted to General Who Garrisons the East and enfeoffed as Marquis of Fei Village—the same peerage his adoptive grandfather Cao Teng had held.
Between August and September 196 CE, Cao Cao led his forces to Luoyang and received Emperor Xian. The emperor granted him a ceremonial axe and appointed him Manager of the Affairs of the Imperial Secretariat and Colonel-Director of Retainers. As Luoyang was in ruins, Dong Zhao and others advised moving the capital. In October or November, Cao Cao escorted the emperor to Xu (present-day Xuchang, Henan), which became the new imperial capital. Cao Cao was appointed General-in-Chief and promoted to county marquis as ‘Marquis of Wuping’ with ten thousand households.
With the emperor under his control, Cao Cao could now issue edicts in the emperor’s name, greatly enhancing his legitimacy. However, this arrangement was a double-edged sword: whilst he gained the ability to ‘hold the Son of Heaven to command the lords’ (挟天子以令诸侯), he also had to navigate the complex politics of maintaining nominal allegiance whilst exercising real power. He did have the emperor’s confidante Zhao Yan killed for secretly keeping the emperor informed about affairs of state.
When Yuan Shao received an imperial decree appointing him Grand Commandant—a position ranking below Cao Cao’s General-in-Chief—he rejected it in anger. To placate him, Cao Cao surrendered the General-in-Chief title and offered it to Yuan Shao. Emperor Xian then reappointed Cao Cao as Minister of Works and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry.
Recognising the importance of food supply after witnessing Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu’s struggles, Cao Cao implemented the tuntian (military-agricultural colony) system following the suggestions of Zao Zhi and Han Hao. This innovation settled displaced populations on state lands to produce grain, shortening supply lines, increasing productivity, and providing a sustainable economic foundation for his campaigns.
Unification of the north (196–207 CE)
Eliminating Lü Bu and Yuan Shu (196–199 CE)
In early 197 CE, Cao Cao led forces to attack Zhang Xiu at Wancheng. Zhang Xiu initially surrendered, but after being mistreated, he turned on Cao Cao in a surprise attack. Cao Cao lost his eldest son Cao Ang, nephew Cao Anmin, and bodyguard Dian Wei in the battle. He returned to Xuchang but attacked Zhang Xiu again later that year. In late 199 CE, acting on Jia Xu’s advice, Zhang Xiu voluntarily surrendered to Cao Cao.
Also in early 197 CE, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor at Shouchun—an act of treason against Emperor Xian. He soon came under attack by Cao Cao and others, including his former ally Lü Bu. By 199 CE, Yuan Shu was in dire straits and attempted to head north to join Yuan Shao. Cao Cao sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to intercept him, and Yuan Shu died of illness under their siege.
In 198 CE, after Lü Bu sided with Yuan Shu again and attacked Liu Bei, Cao Cao and Liu Bei combined forces and defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi. Lü Bu was captured and executed. Cao Cao also pacified the eastern coastal regions of Xu and Qing provinces.
Battle of Guandu (200 CE)
While Cao Cao was consolidating his position in central China, Yuan Shao defeated his rival Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing in 199 CE, gaining control of four provinces in northern China (Ji, Bing, Qing, and You) and commanding thousands of troops. A power struggle between the two became inevitable.
Cao Cao’s advisors Cheng Yu and Guo Jia had warned him against allowing Liu Bei to leave Xuchang, but it was too late—Cao Cao had already sent Liu Bei to intercept Yuan Shu. Liu Bei had secretly joined a conspiracy initiated by Dong Cheng to eliminate Cao Cao. After leaving Xuchang, he killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou and seized control of Xu Province. In February 200 CE, Cao Cao discovered the conspiracy, arrested and executed all the plotters, then led a campaign that defeated Liu Bei and captured his family. Liu Bei’s general Guan Yu surrendered and temporarily served Cao Cao; Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao.
From early to mid-200 CE, Cao Cao’s forces clashed with Yuan Shao’s at Boma and Yan Ford. At Boma, Guan Yu slew Yuan Shao’s general Yan Liang in battle. At Yan Ford, Yuan Shao’s forces under Wen Chou and Liu Bei pursued Cao Cao but were defeated, and Wen Chou was killed. Guan Yu later left Cao Cao and returned to Liu Bei.
In late 200 CE, Yuan Shao led his main force to attack Cao Cao at Guandu. Both sides were locked in stalemate for months as Cao Cao’s supplies dwindled and his men grew weary. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei and Liu Pi to make a surprise attack on Xuchang, but Cao Ren defeated them. Sun Ce, who controlled the Jiangdong region, also contemplated attacking Xuchang but was assassinated before he could execute his plan.
In winter 200 CE, Xu You defected from Yuan Shao’s side and advised Cao Cao to raid the enemy supply depot at Wuchao. Leaving Cao Hong to defend his main camp, Cao Cao personally led 5,000 cavalry to raid Wuchao, which was guarded by Chunyu Qiong. The raid succeeded in destroying Yuan Shao’s supplies. When Yuan Shao sent Zhang He and Gao Lan to attack Cao Cao’s main camp, the two generals, already frustrated with Yuan Shao, destroyed their own fortifications and defected to Cao Cao. Yuan Shao’s army collapsed, and he hastily retreated across the Yellow River. Many commanderies in Ji Province surrendered to Cao Cao.
After the battle, Cao Cao obtained letters written by traitors in his camp to Yuan Shao but ordered them burned without reading them, demonstrating his magnanimity.
Consolidation (201–207 CE)
In summer 201 CE, Cao Cao crossed the Yellow River and inflicted another crushing defeat on Yuan Shao at the Battle of Cangting. Yuan Shao died of illness in early summer 202 CE and was succeeded by his third son Yuan Shang, triggering a succession struggle among the Yuan brothers.
Yuan Tan, the eldest son, allied with Cao Cao against his third brother. From 203 to 204 CE, Cao Cao attacked Yuan Shang’s base at Ye and conquered it. He visited Yuan Shao’s tomb, wept for his former friend, and comforted Yuan Shao’s widow. He also exempted the people of Hebei from paying taxes for that year and restricted the power of influential landlords.
In spring 205 CE, Cao Cao defeated and executed Yuan Tan. Yuan Shang and his second brother Yuan Xi fled north to take shelter with the Wuhuan tribes. In 206 CE, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao’s nephew Gao Gan and pacified the eastern coast by subduing the pirates led by Guan Cheng.
In 207 CE, Cao Cao led a campaign against the Wuhuan tribes and the Yuan brothers, scoring a decisive victory at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain despite difficult terrain. When his generals prepared to invade Liaodong to pursue the Yuan brothers, Cao Cao stopped them and predicted that Gongsun Kang, the warlord of Liaodong, would kill the Yuan brothers himself. His prediction proved correct—Gongsun Kang, sensing the threat the brothers posed, executed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao. Northern China was now unified under Cao Cao’s control.
In spring 207 CE, Cao Cao announced he would distribute his wealth among his followers and enfeoffed over twenty of them as marquises.
Southern campaigns and setbacks (208–215 CE)
Battle of Red Cliffs (208 CE)
Cao Cao returned to Ye in spring 208 CE and ordered the construction of Xuanwu Pool to train his forces in naval warfare. He restructured the government by abolishing the Three Ducal Ministers and replacing them with the offices of Imperial Chancellor and Imperial Counsellor. In July 208 CE, he was officially appointed Imperial Chancellor.
Around this time, Cao Cao had the famous scholar Kong Rong executed for insubordination, along with his family. This action, while characteristic of his ruthless approach to perceived threats, removed one of the foremost literary talents of the age.
In August 208 CE, Cao Cao launched a southern campaign against Liu Biao, the governor of Jing Province. Liu Biao died of illness the following month and was succeeded by his younger son Liu Cong, who surrendered when Cao Cao’s forces arrived at Xiangyang. Liu Bei fled towards Xiakou to join Liu Biao’s elder son Liu Qi. Cao Cao sent 5,000 cavalry in pursuit; covering 150 kilometres in twenty-four hours, they caught Liu Bei at the Battle of Changban. Liu Bei escaped with a few followers but lost most of his supplies.
After conquering most of Jing Province, Cao Cao advanced towards the Yangtze River. Liu Bei formed an alliance with Sun Quan, who controlled the territories in the south. In late 208 CE or early 209 CE, Cao Cao’s forces clashed with the allied forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan at the Battle of Red Cliffs. An epidemic had broken out in Cao Cao’s army, and the allies employed fire ships to devastating effect against his fleet. Cao Cao was decisively defeated.
The retreat through Huarong Trail was particularly harrowing. The area was muddy and inaccessible with strong winds. Cao Cao ordered his weaker soldiers to carry straw and hay to lay out a path, but many were trampled to death by the cavalry. After escaping, Cao Cao remarked: ‘Liu Bei, my friend, doesn’t think fast enough. If he had set fire earlier, we wouldn’t have been able to escape.’
The defeat at Red Cliffs ended Cao Cao’s hope for swift unification of China and established the tripartite division that would characterise the Three Kingdoms period. Liu Bei then conquered the four commanderies of southern Jing Province.
Campaigns in the west (211–215 CE)
In 211 CE, Cao Cao ordered Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army through the Guanzhong region to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. The local warlords, fearing they were the real target, formed the Guanxi Coalition under Ma Chao and Han Sui and rebelled.
Cao Cao personally led a campaign against the rebels, engaging them at Tong Pass and along the Wei River. The first encounter was disastrous when his forces were ambushed while crossing the river. After establishing a fortified position, Cao Cao employed a stratagem suggested by Jia Xu: he pretended to accept peace terms to put the enemy at ease, then had several private meetings with Han Sui—an old acquaintance—to sow distrust among the coalition. He also sent Han Sui a letter with several words deliberately blotted out, making it appear that Han Sui had edited the contents to hide something. The coalition members began to suspect each other, and Cao Cao launched a surprise attack that routed them. Ma Chao and Han Sui retreated; Ma Chao continued to cause trouble in Guanzhong with the support of the Qiang and Di tribes until he was finally driven out in 214 CE.
In 215 CE, Cao Cao conquered Hanzhong from the religious leader Zhang Lu. However, instead of pressing his advantage to attack Liu Bei’s newly acquired territories in Yi Province, he withdrew, leaving Xiahou Yuan in command. Liu Bei subsequently launched the Hanzhong Campaign and wrested the region from Cao Cao by 219 CE, inflicting a significant defeat that included the death of Xiahou Yuan at Mount Dingjun.
King of Wei (216–220 CE)
Elevation (213–216 CE)
As Cao Cao’s power grew, so did his honours. In 213 CE, he was invested as Duke of Wei with a fief comprising ten commanderies in present-day Hebei and Henan. In 216 CE, he was elevated to King of Wei—a title that had not been held by anyone outside the imperial Liu clan since the founding of the Han dynasty. He was awarded numerous ceremonial privileges, some of which had previously been reserved exclusively for emperors, including the right to use imperial banners and the twelve-tasselled crown.
These honours placed Cao Cao in an ambiguous position: he held virtually all the power of an emperor but stopped short of claiming the throne. When urged to take the final step, he reportedly responded that he would be content to be ‘a Zhou Wenwang’, referring to the father of the Zhou dynasty’s founder who never claimed the throne himself.
In 210 CE, Cao Cao had the Bronze Sparrow Platform (銅雀台) constructed at Ye, a grand terrace that became a symbol of his power and cultural patronage. In early 211 CE, he wrote a long memorial to the throne and to a wider audience, including his detractors, in which he defended his actions and articulated his ambitions.
Final years (216–220 CE)
In his later years, Cao Cao faced challenges on multiple fronts. In 219 CE, Guan Yu’s attack on Fancheng posed a serious threat until Sun Quan’s forces attacked Guan Yu from behind, captured him, and executed him.
The question of succession among his capable sons occupied much of Cao Cao’s attention. After considerable deliberation, he designated Cao Pi as his heir, passing over the more literary Cao Zhi and the martially inclined Cao Zhang. In spring 211 CE, Cao Pi was appointed General of the Household for All Purposes and served as his father’s assistant.
Cao Cao suffered from chronic headaches throughout much of his later life. He died in Luoyang on 15 March 220 CE, reportedly from illness related to these headaches. He was buried at Gaoling (高陵), west of Ye, in accordance with his instructions for a modest funeral without elaborate grave goods or gold or jade ornaments.
Within months of his death, Cao Pi accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian in November 220 CE and established the state of Cao Wei, formally ending the Han dynasty. He granted his father the posthumous title Emperor Wu (‘Martial Emperor’) and the temple name Taizu (‘Grand Ancestor’).
Personality and traits
Virtues and abilities
Cao Cao was renowned for his strategic acumen and administrative ability. He demonstrated exceptional talent in both military command and civil governance, earning recognition for his impartial enforcement of law and suppression of corruption. His ability to identify and employ talented individuals regardless of their background was a hallmark of his leadership. He famously stated that he valued ability over virtue in times of chaos, issuing edicts calling for the recruitment of capable men even if they were of poor moral character.
He possessed remarkable breadth of interests, excelling not only in military strategy and governance but also in poetry, calligraphy, and music. He was widely read in classical literature and history, and his literary works reveal both political ambition and philosophical reflection.
Temperament
Cao Cao was described as perceptive, manipulative, and unconventional in his behaviour from youth. He was known for his decisiveness and willingness to act when others hesitated, as well as his ability to adapt his tactics to circumstances. However, he could also be ruthless and was characterised by his enemies as crafty and cunning.
He displayed a dark humour even in dire circumstances, as demonstrated by his comments after escaping through Huarong Trail following Red Cliffs. He was also capable of genuine emotion, as shown when he wept at the tomb of his former friend and rival Yuan Shao.
The famous assessment by Xu Shao—‘a capable minister in times of peace, a cunning hero in times of chaos’—captures the dual nature of his character: his talents could serve either constructive or destructive ends depending on the circumstances.
Physical appearance
Cao Cao was of modest height but possessed a commanding presence with bright, penetrating eyes. His bearing was imposing despite his stature. He possessed exceptional physical prowess: his strength exceeded that of ordinary men, and he could shoot birds in flight and capture fierce beasts with his bare hands.
Relationships
Family
Cao Cao’s father was Cao Song, who rose to the rank of Grand Commandant through his connection to the eunuch Cao Teng. Cao Song was murdered in 193 CE in Xu Province, an event that triggered Cao Cao’s brutal campaigns against Tao Qian.
Cao Cao had numerous consorts. His first formal wife was Lady Ding, who became estranged from him after the death of his eldest son Cao Ang—she blamed him for the death and eventually separated from him. His second formal wife, Lady Bian, bore him four sons: Cao Pi (who succeeded him), Cao Zhang (a martial son), Cao Zhi (the renowned poet), and Cao Xiong.
Cao Cao had at least twenty-five sons and several daughters. Notable sons include Cao Ang (died at Wancheng in 197 CE), Cao Pi (the first Wei emperor), Cao Zhi (one of the greatest poets of the era), and Cao Chong (who died young but was highly regarded for his exceptional intelligence, famously depicted in the story of weighing an elephant). His daughter Cao Jie became Empress to Emperor Xian.
Lord and vassals
Cao Cao nominally served Emperor Xian from 196 CE until his death in 220 CE, though in practice he controlled the imperial court. His relationship with the emperor was complex: he both protected and controlled Emperor Xian, using imperial authority to legitimise his own rule while preventing the emperor from exercising real power.
He employed many talented advisors and generals who formed the core of his administration. His strategists included Xun Yu, Xun You, Guo Jia, Jia Xu, and Cheng Yu. His military commanders included his relatives Xiahou Dun, Xiahou Yuan, Cao Ren, and Cao Hong, as well as outstanding generals like Zhang Liao, Xu Huang, Zhang He, Yue Jin, Yu Jin, and Li Dian. His ability to attract and retain talented men from diverse backgrounds was crucial to his success.
Allies and rivals
Cao Cao’s early ally was Yuan Shao, with whom he had been friends since youth. They attended the same gatherings and once reportedly engaged in mischief together, including stealing a bride from a wedding. However, they became rivals as both sought to dominate northern China, culminating in Cao Cao’s decisive victory at Guandu.
His principal rivals were Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Despite their enmity, Cao Cao maintained a complex relationship with both. He is reported to have said of Liu Bei: ‘The only heroes in the world are Liu Bei and myself.’ He alternated between diplomacy and warfare with Sun Quan, at times proposing alliances and at other times launching invasions.
Achievements
Military achievements
Combat abilities
Cao Cao was personally skilled in martial arts and demonstrated courage in battle. His physical abilities were extraordinary—able to shoot flying birds and capture fierce beasts. He led from the front in critical engagements and narrowly escaped death on several occasions, including at the battles of Xingyang, Puyang, and Wancheng.
Command and strategy
Cao Cao’s greatest military strength lay in strategic thinking and tactical innovation. His victory at Guandu against the numerically superior Yuan Shao demonstrated his ability to identify and exploit enemy weaknesses through the decisive raid on Wuchao. He excelled at psychological warfare, using deception and manipulation to divide his enemies, as seen in his stratagem against the Guanxi Coalition.
His contributions to military theory were substantial. He authored annotations on The Art of War (孙子略解 Sūnzǐ Lüèjiě), which remain the earliest surviving commentary on Sun Tzu’s classic text. He also compiled military manuals including the Mengde Xinshu (孟德新书) and Bingshu Jieyao (兵书接要), which synthesised various schools of military thought.
Notable battles
Cao Cao participated in or commanded numerous significant battles:
- Battle of Xingyang (190 CE): His first military command; defeated by Xu Rong but escaped with his life.
- Suppression of the Yellow Turbans (192 CE): Defeated the remnants in Yan Province, gaining 300,000 surrendered soldiers.
- Battle of Fengqiu (193 CE): Defeated Yuan Shu.
- Campaigns against Lü Bu (194–198 CE): Ultimately defeated and executed Lü Bu at Xiapi.
- Battle of Guandu (200 CE): Decisive victory over Yuan Shao despite being outnumbered.
- Battle of Cangting (201 CE): Further defeat of Yuan Shao’s forces.
- Battle of White Wolf Mountain (207 CE): Defeated the Wuhuan tribes and eliminated the Yuan remnants.
- Battle of Red Cliffs (208 CE): Defeated by the Sun-Liu alliance, ending his hopes for swift unification.
- Battle of Tong Pass (211 CE): Defeated the Guanxi Coalition led by Ma Chao and Han Sui.
- Conquest of Hanzhong (215 CE): Conquered the region from Zhang Lu.
Political achievements
Administrative record
Cao Cao implemented numerous reforms that strengthened governance and promoted recovery. His tuntian system settled displaced populations on state lands, producing grain for his armies whilst rehabilitating war-ravaged areas. He reformed taxation, implementing a land tax of four sheng per mu and a household tax of two bolts of silk and two jin of cotton. He issued orders establishing schools in counties with 500 or more households.
His meritocratic approach to appointments broke with the traditional emphasis on family background, as embodied in his famous edicts calling for the recruitment of capable men regardless of moral reputation. He strengthened centralised authority while working through the existing Han governmental structure.
Political accomplishments
Cao Cao’s ‘holding the emperor to command the lords’ strategy—receiving Emperor Xian at Xuchang in 196 CE—was perhaps his most brilliant political manoeuvre. It provided him with legitimacy that his rivals lacked while giving him control over the apparatus of the Han state.
He rose from Minister of Works (196 CE) to Chancellor (208 CE) to Duke of Wei (213 CE) to King of Wei (216 CE), accumulating honours and powers that placed him in an unprecedented position between subject and sovereign. He received the Nine Bestowments (jiuxi), ceremonial privileges that signified imminent imperial succession.
Cultural contributions
Cao Cao founded the Jian’an literary school along with his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi, establishing a distinctive literary tradition characterised by directness, emotional power, and concern with the sufferings of the age. This ‘Jian’an style’ (建安风骨) influenced Chinese poetry for centuries.
Beyond poetry, Cao Cao was accomplished in calligraphy, particularly the zhangcao (章草) cursive script. He also had a deep appreciation for music.
Representative works
Poetry
Cao Cao’s poems, all in the yuefu (music bureau) style, are among the finest of the era. They combine political ambition with philosophical reflection on mortality and the human condition.
‘Viewing the Azure Sea’ (观沧海 Guān Cānghǎi)
Composed during his 207 CE campaign against the Wuhuan, this is one of the earliest landscape poems in Chinese literature. It describes the vastness of the sea viewed from Jieshi Mountain and reflects Cao Cao’s ambitious spirit:
East I come to Jieshi,
To view the azure sea.
The waters so vast and rolling,
The islands rising steeply.
‘Short Song Style’ (短歌行 Duǎn Gē Xíng)
This meditation on the brevity of life expresses Cao Cao’s desire for talented men to serve him. The famous lines ‘The moon is bright, the stars are few’ (月明星稀) and images of crows seeking branches exemplify his ability to blend the personal and political.
‘Though the Tortoise Lives Long’ (龟虽寿 Guī Suī Shòu)
Part of the Step Out of the Xiamen Gate series, this poem expresses Cao Cao’s philosophy on ambition and mortality. The famous line ‘An old steed in the stable still aspires to gallop a thousand li’ (老骥伏枥，志在千里) has become a celebrated expression of enduring ambition in old age.
‘Bitter Cold Song’ (苦寒行 Kǔhán Xíng) and ‘Hao Li Xing’ (蒿里行)
These poems reflect the hardships of military campaigns and the sufferings of the common people during the civil wars, demonstrating Cao Cao’s awareness of the human cost of the era’s conflicts.
Military writings
Annotations on The Art of War (孙子略解 Sūnzǐ Lüèjiě)
Cao Cao’s annotations on Sun Tzu’s classic are the earliest surviving commentary on the text. They demonstrate his deep understanding of military strategy and provide practical insights from his own experience.
Mengde Xinshu (孟德新书) and Bingshu Jieyao (兵书接要)
These military manuals, attributed to Cao Cao, synthesised various schools of military thought. Though largely lost, fragments survive in later compilations.
Collected works
Cao Cao’s writings were compiled posthumously as the Wei Wudi Ji (魏武帝集), though this collection is now lost. His surviving works have been reconstructed in collections such as the Cao Cao Ji.
Anecdotes and allusions
Five-Coloured Staffs (五色棒 Wǔsè Bàng)
When Cao Cao was appointed Commandant of the North District of Luoyang, he had five-coloured staffs made and hung at the gates of his office with a declaration that any lawbreaker would be beaten to death regardless of status. When the uncle of the powerful eunuch Jian Shuo violated the night curfew, Cao Cao had him beaten to death. After this, the capital knew order.
Feigning Illness (诈中风 Zhà Zhōngfēng)
As a youth, Cao Cao’s uncle frequently criticised him to his father. To discredit his uncle, Cao Cao pretended to suffer a stroke when his uncle passed by. The uncle rushed to inform Cao Song, but when Cao Song arrived, Cao Cao was perfectly fine and claimed he had never been ill. From then on, Cao Song no longer believed his brother’s complaints about Cao Cao.
Xu Shao’s Assessment (许劭评曹操 Xǔ Shào Píng Cáo Cāo)
When Cao Cao was young and seeking to establish his reputation, he visited the renowned physiognomist Xu Shao. Initially, Xu Shao refused to assess him, but after persistent questioning, he finally said: ‘In times of peace, you would be a capable minister; in times of chaos, a cunning hero’ (治世之能臣，乱世之奸雄). Cao Cao was delighted and gradually became known throughout the realm.
Quenching Thirst by Thinking of Plums (望梅止渴 Wàngméi Zhǐkě)
During a military campaign, Cao Cao’s army was suffering from severe thirst with no water in sight. To boost morale, Cao Cao told his soldiers that a plum grove lay ahead. The thought of the sour plums caused the soldiers to salivate, temporarily relieving their thirst and enabling them to press on until they found water.
The Battle of Guandu (官渡之战 Guāndù Zhī Zhàn)
At Guandu in 200 CE, Cao Cao faced Yuan Shao’s vastly superior forces. Through superior strategy and a bold raid on Yuan Shao’s supply depot at Wuchao, following the advice of the defector Xu You, Cao Cao achieved a decisive victory despite being vastly outnumbered. After the battle, Cao Cao obtained letters written by traitors in his camp to Yuan Shao but ordered them burned without reading them, demonstrating magnanimity.
Welcoming the Emperor (迎天子 Yíng Tiānzǐ)
In 196 CE, when Emperor Xian fled from chaos in Chang’an, Cao Cao’s advisor Xun Yu recommended welcoming the emperor to establish legitimacy. Cao Cao acted on this advice, bringing the emperor to Xu. This move allowed him to issue edicts in the emperor’s name and greatly enhanced his political standing—the origin of the phrase ‘holding the Son of Heaven to command the lords’ (挟天子以令诸侯).
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Cao Cao is primarily documented in Chen Shou’s Sanguozhi, particularly in the ‘Wudi Ji’ (Annals of Emperor Wu). Chen Shou, working in the Jin dynasty history bureau, had access to various sources including the now-lost Dongguan Ji and the Book of Wei. He followed the traditional method of synthesising information without citing specific sources.
Pei Songzhi’s fifth-century annotations significantly expand the historical record by incorporating material from other sources, including the Book of Wei (compiled by Wang Chen, Xun Yi, and Ruan Ji during the Wei and early Jin dynasties), which is predictably favourable to Cao Cao. A counterpoint is the Cao Man Zhuan, an anonymous collection of anecdotes compiled by someone from rival Eastern Wu, which is hostile to Cao Cao and has been characterised as ‘hostile propaganda’. Other important sources cited by Pei Songzhi include the Xiandi Ji, Xiandi Qiju Zhu, Shanyang Gong Zaiji, Yu Huan’s Dianlüe and Weilüe, and Sima Biao’s Annals of the Nine Provinces.
The Book of the Later Han by Fan Ye, completed after Pei Songzhi’s annotations, provides additional context for the Eastern Han period but does not contain a full biography of Cao Cao.
Cao family origins
The Cao family claimed descent from the Han dynasty minister Cao Shen, though this lineage has been questioned. Pei Songzhi’s annotations to the Sanguozhi suggest that Cao Song was originally from the Xiahou family, which would make Cao Cao a cousin of Xiahou Dun and Xiahou Yuan. Modern DNA analysis conducted following the discovery of his tomb has cast further doubt on the claimed descent from Cao Shen, though this remains a subject of scholarly debate.
Physical stature
The Wei Shi Chunqiu records that Cao Cao was of modest height but his bearing was imposing. Archaeological evidence from his tomb suggests he was approximately 155 centimetres (about 5 feet 1 inch) tall. The Wei Shu records his exceptional physical prowess despite his stature.
Historical vs literary portrayal
The historical Cao Cao differs substantially from his portrayal in Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The novel, reflecting Ming-Qing cultural values and the influence of popular storytelling traditions, presents Cao Cao as a villainous figure—Mao Zonggang’s commentary on the novel calls him the ‘ultimate villain’ (奸绝) among the ‘three supreme figures’ of the work.
Historical sources show a more complex character who was both capable and ruthless. The famous line ‘Better I betray the world than let the world betray me’ (宁我负天下人，毋天下人负我), often attributed to Cao Cao, appears in the Cao Man Zhuan in connection with the Lü Boshe incident and reflects the hostile Wu perspective rather than verified history.
The novel exaggerates certain events for dramatic effect. The scale of the Battle of Red Cliffs is inflated (the novel claims Cao Cao had 830,000 troops), and Zhuge Liang’s role is greatly expanded—episodes like ‘borrowing arrows with straw boats’ and ‘praying for the east wind’ have no historical basis. The novel also simplifies Cao Cao’s character into a more one-dimensional villain.
Scholarly debates
Modern scholars have debated various aspects of Cao Cao’s life. His family origins remain contested—the question of whether his father was originally from the Xiahou family has implications for understanding his relationships with Xiahou Dun and Xiahou Yuan. The authenticity of various anecdotes, including the Lü Boshe incident, has been questioned given the hostile sources from which they derive.
Cultural contributions
Modern literary critics have reassessed Cao Cao’s literary significance. Lu Xun praised him as ‘the transformative ancestor of literature’ (改造文章的祖师). The Tang dynasty critic Zhang Huaiguan rated his calligraphy as ‘excellent grade’ (miaoping 妙品) in his influential work Shuduan.
Archaeological discoveries
On 27 December 2009, the Henan Provincial Cultural Heritage Bureau announced the discovery of a tomb in Xigaoxue Village, Anyang County, believed to be Cao Cao’s Gaoling mausoleum. The tomb covers approximately 740 square metres and contained the remains of three people: a man in his sixties and two women aged approximately fifty and twenty.
The identification was based on several factors: the tomb’s architectural style (characteristic of late Eastern Han and early Wei burials), its location near the ancient city of Ye (Cao Cao’s capital), and stone inscriptions bearing the characters ‘King Wu of Wei’ (魏武王)—Cao Cao’s posthumous title before his son elevated him to emperor.
The discovery proved controversial. Sceptics questioned whether the inscribed items were authentic, noting that the tomb had been heavily looted and disturbed. The State Administration of Cultural Heritage endorsed the identification in 2010, and the tomb was included in the seventh batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in 2013. However, a 2010 article in Kaogu magazine claimed the tomb actually belonged to Cao Huan (the last Wei emperor) and his father Cao Yu, based on a seal that had been misread.
Excavations were completed by the end of 2010, with over 400 artefacts unearthed. The tomb showed evidence of deliberate destruction, with items bearing the king’s name damaged and the male skull’s face smashed—possibly by political opponents or grave robbers. A museum is being constructed at the site.
Personality analysis
Modern scholars have analysed Cao Cao’s personality as complex and multifaceted. He combined strategic brilliance with ruthless pragmatism, meritocratic principles with authoritarian methods. His ability to employ talented individuals regardless of background, combined with his willingness to eliminate threats, shows a leader who balanced openness with control. His literary works reveal a man who was both ambitious and acutely aware of mortality, combining political calculation with genuine philosophical reflection.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary assessments
During his lifetime, Cao Cao received mixed assessments. The physiognomist Xu Shao’s evaluation—‘a capable minister in times of peace, a cunning hero in times of chaos’—became definitive. His advisor Xun Yu praised his ability to employ talent and implement effective governance. Qiao Xuan and He Yong recognised his extraordinary potential in his youth. However, his enemies condemned him as a usurper and tyrant.
Chen Shou’s evaluation
Chen Shou, Cao Cao’s biographer, provided this assessment:
Emperor Taizu planned strategies and directed operations, whipping the realm into submission. He adopted the methods of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, and employed the stratagems of Han Xin and Bai Qi. He assigned officials according to ability, each suited to their role. He restrained his emotions in favour of calculation and did not dwell on old grudges. That he was ultimately able to control the imperial mechanisms and accomplish great deeds was due to his superior clarity and strategy. He can truly be called an extraordinary man, a hero transcending his age.
Pei Songzhi’s commentary
Pei Songzhi’s annotations provide alternative perspectives from various sources, offering a more nuanced view that includes both favourable accounts from Wei sources and hostile accounts from Wu sources.
Later dynasty evaluations
Tang Taizong Li Shimin praised Cao Cao’s tactical genius while noting his limitations as a ruler: ‘As a general his wisdom was more than sufficient, but as an emperor his talent was lacking.’
Sima Guang, the Song dynasty historian who compiled the Zizhi Tongjian, acknowledged Cao Cao’s abilities while criticising his usurpation of Han authority.
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the popular image of Cao Cao as a villain became firmly established through Romance of the Three Kingdoms and theatrical traditions. In Beijing opera, he is portrayed as a jing (painted face) role with a white face symbolising treachery and cunning.
Modern scholarship
Since the twentieth century, historians have generally sought to rehabilitate Cao Cao’s reputation, emphasising his achievements in reunifying the north, implementing effective governance, and patronising literature. Mao Zedong famously expressed admiration for Cao Cao as a capable leader maligned by feudal morality. The 2009 tomb discovery renewed public interest in the historical Cao Cao as distinct from his literary counterpart. Modern scholars recognise him as one of the most capable leaders of his era, acknowledging both his achievements and his ruthless methods.
Legacy
Cultural significance
Cao Cao represents one of the most complex figures in Chinese culture, embodying both strategic brilliance and political ruthlessness. He is remembered as a capable ruler who unified northern China and laid the foundations for the Wei kingdom, while also being associated with cunning and political manipulation. His contributions to literature have ensured his enduring place in Chinese cultural history.
Symbolism and folklore
In Chinese folklore and popular culture, Cao Cao symbolises political cunning and strategic thinking. The phrase ‘Speak of Cao Cao and Cao Cao appears’ (说曹操，曹操到) is the Chinese equivalent of ‘Speak of the devil’, reflecting his reputation for swift and unexpected action. The phrase ‘white-faced Cao Cao’ (白脸曹操) derives from his theatrical portrayal and refers to treacherous characters.
Despite his villainous image in popular culture, he is also admired for his ability to identify and employ talent, and his poems continue to be studied and appreciated.
Idioms and sayings
| Idiom | Pinyin | Meaning | Origin |
|---|---|---|---|
| 望梅止渴 | wàngméi zhǐkě | To console oneself with false hopes | Cao Cao told his thirsty troops to imagine plums ahead |
| 说曹操，曹操到 | shuō Cáo Cāo, Cáo Cāo dào | Speak of the devil | Folk saying reflecting his reputation for swift action |
| 老骥伏枥，志在千里 | lǎojì fúlì, zhìzài qiānlǐ | An old steed in the stable still aspires to gallop a thousand li | From Cao Cao’s poem ‘Though the Tortoise Lives Long’ |
Memorial sites
Gaoling Mausoleum (高陵)
Cao Cao’s tomb, known as Gaoling, is located in Xigaoxue Village, Anfeng Township, Anyang City, Henan Province. Cao Cao was buried there in 220 CE following his instructions for a frugal burial without elaborate grave goods.
The tomb was identified and announced in December 2009, generating significant controversy. The archaeological site covers approximately 8,934 square metres including two tomb structures. The main tomb (No. 2 pit) contained the male skull believed to be Cao Cao’s, along with two female skulls and over 250 artefacts. Stone inscriptions bearing the characters ‘King Wu of Wei’ provided key evidence for identification.
The site was designated one of China’s top ten archaeological discoveries of 2009 by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage and was included in the seventh batch of Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level in 2013. A museum is under construction at the site.
Cao Cao Memorial Hall, Bozhou
Located in Cao Cao’s birthplace of Bozhou, Anhui Province, this memorial complex includes reconstructed historical buildings, exhibition halls, and gardens commemorating his life and achievements.
Artistic portrayals
Literature
Beyond Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Cao Cao appears in numerous literary works. His poems have been anthologised and studied throughout Chinese literary history. Modern historical novels and biographies have explored his character from various perspectives, often attempting to present a more balanced view than the traditional villainous portrayal.
Pingshu and storytelling
In traditional Chinese storytelling (pingshu), Cao Cao is a central figure in Three Kingdoms narratives. Storytellers typically follow the villainous characterisation from the Romance, elaborating on his cunning and cruelty while acknowledging his talents.
Traditional opera and drama
In Beijing opera and other traditional dramatic forms, Cao Cao is typically portrayed as a jing (painted face) role with a white face (bai lian), symbolising treachery and cunning. Famous plays featuring Cao Cao include Catching and Releasing Cao Cao (捉放曹), Borrowing the East Wind (借东风), and The Hua Rong Path (华容道).
Television
| Year | Title | Actor | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1994 | Romance of the Three Kingdoms | Bao Guoan | Widely regarded as the definitive portrayal |
| 2010 | Three Kingdoms | Chen Jianbin |
Film
| Year | Title | Actor | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2008 | Red Cliff | Zhang Fengyi | Directed by John Woo |
| 2012 | The Assassins | Chow Yun-fat |
Video games
| Year | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1985– | Romance of the Three Kingdoms series | Koei/Tecmo |
| 1997– | Dynasty Warriors series | Koei/Tecmo |
Timeline
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 155 | Born in Qiao County, Pei State |
| 165 | Encounters crocodile while swimming (approximate) |
| 174 | Appointed Commandant of the North District of Luoyang; five-coloured staffs incident |
| 177 | Appointed Prefect of Dunqiu County |
| 178 | Dismissed due to Song Qi scandal |
| 180 | Recalled as Consultant |
| 184 | Participated in suppression of Yellow Turban Rebellion; appointed Chancellor of Jinan |
| 188 | Appointed Colonel Who Arranges the Army in the Army of the Western Garden |
| 189 | Joined coalition against Dong Zhuo; escaped from Luoyang |
| 190 | Defeated by Xu Rong at Battle of Xingyang |
| 191 | Appointed Administrator of Dong Commandery |
| 192 | Became Governor of Yan Province; formed Qingzhou Army |
| 193 | Defeated Yuan Shu at Fengqiu; father Cao Song murdered |
| 194 | Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebel; conflict with Lü Bu begins |
| 196 | Welcomed Emperor Xian to Xu; appointed Minister of Works; implemented tuntian system |
| 197 | Defeated at Wancheng; lost son Cao Ang; Yuan Shu declares himself emperor |
| 198 | Defeated and executed Lü Bu at Xiapi |
| 200 | Defeated Liu Bei at Xu Province; decisive victory at Battle of Guandu |
| 201 | Defeated Yuan Shao at Battle of Cangting |
| 202 | Yuan Shao dies |
| 204 | Conquered Ye; completed conquest of Ji Province |
| 205 | Defeated and executed Yuan Tan |
| 207 | Defeated Wuhuan at Battle of White Wolf Mountain; northern China unified |
| 208 | Appointed Chancellor; defeated at Battle of Red Cliffs |
| 210 | Bronze Sparrow Platform constructed |
| 211 | Defeated Guanxi Coalition at Battle of Tong Pass |
| 213 | Invested as Duke of Wei |
| 215 | Conquered Hanzhong from Zhang Lu |
| 216 | Elevated to King of Wei |
| 219 | Lost Hanzhong to Liu Bei; Xiahou Yuan killed at Mount Dingjun |
| 220 | Died in Luoyang on 15 March; buried at Gaoling |
See also
External links
- Cao Cao on Wikipedia
- 曹操 on Chinese Wikipedia
- Cao Cao Mausoleum on Wikipedia
References
- Chen Shou. Sanguozhi (三国志). 3rd century.
- Pei Songzhi. Sanguozhi annotations. 5th century.
- Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义). 14th century.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴). 11th century.
- de Crespigny, Rafe. A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms. Leiden: Brill, 2007.