Biography
Early life and ambition
Cao Zhang was born in 188 or 189 CE in Qiao County, Pei Commandery (present-day Bozhou, Anhui). He was Cao Cao’s fourth son and the second son of Lady Bian (Empress Wuxuan).
When Cao Zhang was young, he was good at archery and charioteering, had extraordinary strength, and could fight fierce beasts barehanded, not avoiding danger or difficulty. He followed Cao Cao on campaigns several times and was ambitious from a young age, determined to become a general.
Cao Cao once warned him: “You do not think of reading books and admiring the Way of the Sages but like riding horses and fencing. This is only useful for one person—what is valuable about it?” He therefore required Cao Zhang to read the Book of Songs and Book of Documents.
However, Cao Zhang said to those around him: “A great man should be like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, leading one hundred thousand cavalry to gallop across the desert, drive out the Rong and Di, and establish merit and fame. How can I become a scholar?”
Expressing his ambition
Later, Cao Cao tried asking his various children about their preferences and had each child state their own ambition. Cao Zhang still said: “I want to be a general.”
Cao Cao asked: “What does being a general mean?”
Cao Zhang replied: “Wear strong armour, grasp sharp weapons, face difficulties without regard for oneself, be first among the soldiers; rewards must be carried out, punishments must be trusted.”
When Cao Cao heard this, he laughed.
Campaign against the Wuhuan
In 216 CE, Cao Zhang was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yanling.
In the fourth month of 218 CE, Wuchen Di (Nengchen Di) and others of the Wuhuan in Dai Commandery rebelled. Cao Cao appointed Cao Zhang as General of the North and Acting General of the Rapid as Tigers and ordered him to campaign against the Wuhuan.
Before setting out, Cao Cao warned Cao Zhang: “At home we are father and son; when receiving orders we are ruler and subject. All actions must follow the king’s law. You must be careful!”
Cao Zhang campaigned north and entered the territory of Zhuojun. Several thousand rebel Wuhuan cavalry attacked. At that time, Cao Zhang’s troops had not yet assembled, and he had only one thousand infantry and several hundred horses.
Cao Zhang used Tian Yu’s strategy and held the strategic positions firmly. The enemy was defeated and scattered, and Cao Zhang pursued them, personally fighting the enemy, shooting enemy cavalry with arrows. Those who fell in response were connected in a line.
After fighting for half a day, Cao Zhang’s armour was hit by several arrows, but his spirit became even more heroic. He pursued the victory and chased them to the Sanggan River, over two hundred li from Dai Commandery.
The army’s Chief Clerk and various generals all believed that the troops had come from far away, men and horses were tired, and there was an order not to cross Dai Commandery and not to advance deep into enemy territory, violating orders and underestimating the enemy.
Cao Zhang said: “Leading troops on campaign is only for victory. Why should we be restricted? The enemy has not yet run far. If we pursue them, we can defeat them. Obeying orders and letting the enemy escape is certainly not a good general.”
He then mounted his horse and ordered the troops: “Those who fall behind will be executed!”
In one day and one night, he caught up with the enemy, attacked, and achieved great victory, cutting off heads and taking several thousand captives.
Cao Zhang rewarded the officers and soldiers several times beyond the usual amount, and the entire army was happy.
Subduing Kebineng
At that time, Kebineng, leader of the Xianbei, led several tens of thousands of troops to observe the strength and weakness of both sides. When he saw Cao Zhang fighting bravely and advancing irresistibly, he requested to submit.
In this way, the north was pacified.
Meeting Cao Cao
At that time, Cao Cao was in Chang’an and summoned Cao Zhang to his travelling camp.
Cao Zhang passed through Ye on the way. The Crown Prince (Cao Pi) said to Cao Zhang: “You have just achieved merit. Now you are going west to see the Lord. You should not boast yourself. When answering questions, you should always act as if you are insufficient.”
When Cao Zhang arrived, he followed the Crown Prince’s words and attributed all the merit to the various generals.
Cao Cao was very happy and pulled Cao Zhang’s beard, saying: “The Yellow Beard actually achieved great merit!”
Hanzhong Campaign
In the ninth month of the same year, Cao Cao was fighting fiercely with Shu forces in Hanzhong, and Liu Bei had stationed troops on a mountaintop, ordering Liu Feng to come down the mountain and challenge.
Cao Cao cursed: “You, this seller of straw sandals, actually sent your adopted son to lead troops to resist me. Ah, watch me call my (biological) Yellow Beard to come.” He therefore ordered Cao Zhang to be summoned to assist in battle.
Cao Zhang therefore advanced day and night, doubling his speed. However, when he reached Chang’an from the west, Cao Cao had already returned from Hanzhong.
After Cao Cao returned east, he had Cao Zhang act as General of the Rapid as Tigers and remain to guard Chang’an.
After Cao Cao’s death
On the 23rd day of the first month of 220 CE (15 March 220), Cao Cao died in Luoyang.
Cao Zhang was summoned and believed that Cao Zhi was to be established, but Cao Zhi did not think so. Cao Zhang therefore personally went to ask where the late king’s seal was, but Jia Xu refused him and said: “The Crown Prince is in Ye—the state has a designated heir. The late king’s seal is not something Your Lordship should ask about.”
Cao Zhang was therefore suspected by Cao Pi.
Service under Cao Pi
Soon after, Cao Pi ascended the throne. Cao Zhang, together with the various marquises, went to their states.
Cao Pi issued an edict saying: “The Way of the ancient kings uses merit to make relatives harmonious and establishes maternal brothers, opening states and inheriting families. Therefore, they could protect the great lineage and resist insults and suppress difficulties. Cao Zhang previously received orders to campaign north and pacified the land of Shuofang. His merit was abundant. Increase his fief by five thousand households, together with the previous, ten thousand households.”
Cao Zhang believed that he had established merit when Cao Cao was still alive and should now be greatly employed. However, Cao Pi only followed the usual practice and ordered him to return to Yanling to guard himself. Cao Zhang was therefore very dissatisfied and, without waiting for orders, returned to his fief on his own.
During the period of enfeoffment as a king, he was strict, harsh, and severe.
Ennoblement
In 221 CE, the second year of Huangchu, Cao Zhang was advanced to Duke of Yanling.
In 222 CE, the third year of Huangchu, Cao Zhang was established as King of Rencheng.
Death
In 223 CE, the fourth year of Huangchu, Cao Zhang came to Luoyang to pay court to the emperor. However, because he had previously asked about the emperor’s seal and had rebellious intentions, during this year’s court visit, he was not immediately received.
On the Jiaxu day of the sixth month (1 August 223), Cao Zhang died suddenly in the capital Luoyang.
According to the Wei Shi Chunqiu, Cao Zhang asked about the seal and had rebellious intentions. Therefore, when he came to court, he was not received. Cao Zhang was angry and resentful and died suddenly.
Cao Zhang was posthumously titled King Wei. His son Cao Kai inherited the position and was later changed to King of Jinan.
At the time of burial, the court granted him a carriage with bells, dragon banners, and one hundred Tiger Guard warriors, following the old example of Liu Cang, King of Dongping of the Han dynasty.
Personality
Cao Zhang was known for his strength and bravery. When young, he was good at archery and charioteering, had extraordinary strength, and could fight fierce beasts barehanded.
He was ambitious from a young age, determined to become a general rather than a scholar. When Cao Cao asked about his ambition, he said he wanted to be a general and described what that meant: “Wear strong armour, grasp sharp weapons, face difficulties without regard for oneself, be first among the soldiers; rewards must be carried out, punishments must be trusted.”
He was also known for his strictness and severity. During the period of enfeoffment as a king, he was strict, harsh, and severe, and those in the northern provinces, high and low, all feared Cao Zhang’s strictness.
Military achievements
Campaign against the Wuhuan
Cao Zhang’s greatest achievement was his campaign against the Wuhuan in Dai Commandery. Despite having only one thousand infantry and several hundred horses, he used Tian Yu’s strategy to hold strategic positions, defeated the enemy, and pursued them for over two hundred li, achieving great victory and cutting off heads and taking several thousand captives.
Subduing Kebineng
Cao Zhang’s bravery in battle impressed Kebineng, leader of the Xianbei, who led several tens of thousands of troops. When Kebineng saw Cao Zhang fighting bravely and advancing irresistibly, he requested to submit, helping to pacify the north.
Guarding Chang’an
After the Hanzhong Campaign, Cao Zhang was ordered to guard Chang’an as General of the Rapid as Tigers, showing Cao Cao’s trust in him.
Relationships
With Cao Cao
Cao Cao greatly valued Cao Zhang’s military ability, calling him “Yellow Beard” and praising him for achieving great merit. However, Cao Cao also warned Cao Zhang about the importance of following the law and tried to encourage him to study.
With Cao Pi
Cao Zhang had a difficult relationship with Cao Pi. After Cao Cao’s death, Cao Zhang asked about the seal, leading Cao Pi to suspect him. Cao Pi did not greatly employ Cao Zhang, only following the usual practice and ordering him to return to his fief. According to some sources, Cao Pi may have poisoned Cao Zhang, though this is disputed.
With Cao Zhi
Cao Zhang was Cao Zhi’s elder brother. After Cao Cao’s death, Cao Zhang believed that Cao Zhi was to be established, but Cao Zhi did not think so, saying: “Have you not seen the Yuan brothers?”
Anecdotes
The “Yellow Beard”
Cao Zhang was called “Yellow Beard” (黃鬚兒) by Cao Cao because of his yellow beard. Some scholars believe this may indicate Xianbei ancestry, as western Xianbei people were known for having yellow beards and pale faces.
Expressing ambition
When Cao Cao asked his children about their ambitions, Cao Zhang said he wanted to be a general. When Cao Cao asked what that meant, Cao Zhang replied: “Wear strong armour, grasp sharp weapons, face difficulties without regard for oneself, be first among the soldiers; rewards must be carried out, punishments must be trusted.” Cao Cao laughed at this.
The pursuit
During the campaign against the Wuhuan, Cao Zhang pursued the enemy for over two hundred li despite orders not to cross Dai Commandery. He said: “Leading troops on campaign is only for victory. Why should we be restricted?” He achieved great victory and rewarded his troops generously.
Asking about the seal
After Cao Cao’s death, Cao Zhang asked Jia Xu where the late king’s seal was. Jia Xu refused him, saying: “The Crown Prince is in Ye—the state has a designated heir. The late king’s seal is not something Your Lordship should ask about.” This led Cao Pi to suspect Cao Zhang.
The sudden death
According to some sources, Cao Zhang died suddenly in Luoyang after being suspected by Cao Pi. The Wei Shi Chunqiu says he was angry and resentful and died suddenly. Some later sources claim Cao Pi poisoned him, though this is disputed.
Achievements
- Defeated the Wuhuan in Dai Commandery
- Subdued Kebineng, leader of the Xianbei
- Pacified the north
- Achieved rank of King of Rencheng
- Guarded Chang’an
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Cao Zhang’s biography appears in Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Cao Zhi and Cao Xiong. Chen Shou wrote: “Rencheng was strong in military arts and brave, having the spirit of a general.”
The “Yellow Beard” nickname
Cao Zhang was called “Yellow Beard” by Cao Cao because of his yellow beard. Some scholars believe this may indicate Xianbei ancestry, as western Xianbei people were known for having yellow beards and pale faces.
The question about the seal
After Cao Cao’s death, Cao Zhang asked about the seal, leading Cao Pi to suspect him. This incident is recorded in multiple sources and shows the tension between Cao Zhang and Cao Pi.
The sudden death
Cao Zhang died suddenly in Luoyang in 223 CE. Some sources claim Cao Pi poisoned him, though this is disputed. The Wei Shi Chunqiu says he was angry and resentful and died suddenly, while the Shishuo Xinyu claims Cao Pi poisoned him with dates, though this is considered unreliable.
The relationship with Cao Pi
Cao Zhang’s relationship with Cao Pi was difficult. After Cao Cao’s death, Cao Pi suspected Cao Zhang, and Cao Zhang was not greatly employed. His sudden death in Luoyang has led to speculation about Cao Pi’s involvement.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Cao Cao said: “The Yellow Beard actually achieved great merit!”
Cao Pi said: “With the king’s heroic military might, swallowing Ba and Shu would be like an owl carrying a dead rat!”
Cao Zhi wrote a eulogy praising Cao Zhang: “Rencheng had deep plans and divine bravery, his wisdom encompassed all arts. Although Lai Zhou and Peng Meng had skill in sword and archery, they could not exceed him.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “Rencheng was strong in military arts and brave, having the spirit of a general.”
Wang Jia wrote: “Rencheng had deep plans and divine bravery, his wisdom encompassed all arts. Although Lai Zhou and Peng Meng had skill in sword and archery, they could not exceed him.”
Legacy
Cao Zhang is remembered as a brave and strong general who achieved victory against the Wuhuan and helped pacify the north. His nickname “Yellow Beard” reflects his distinctive appearance and Cao Cao’s affection for him.
However, he is also remembered for his difficult relationship with Cao Pi and his sudden death in Luoyang, which has led to speculation about foul play.
His story represents both achievement and tragedy—a general who served his father loyally and achieved great success but whose relationship with his brother led to suspicion and possibly death.
Timeline
- 188–189 CE: Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery
- c. 200 CE: Expressed ambition to be a general; Cao Cao laughed
- 216 CE: Enfeoffed as Marquis of Yanling
- 218 CE: Campaign against Wuhuan in Dai Commandery; defeated enemy; pursued for over two hundred li; achieved great victory; subdued Kebineng; pacified the north; called “Yellow Beard” by Cao Cao
- 219 CE: Summoned to assist in Hanzhong Campaign; arrived too late; appointed General of the Rapid as Tigers; guarded Chang’an
- 220 CE: Cao Cao died; asked about seal; suspected by Cao Pi; went to his fief
- 221 CE: Advanced to Duke of Yanling
- 222 CE: Established as King of Rencheng
- 223 CE: Came to Luoyang to pay court; not immediately received; died suddenly on 1 August; posthumously titled King Wei
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 19, Biography of Cao Zhang.
- Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms.
- Yu Huan. Wei Lue.
- Sun Sheng. Wei Shi Chunqiu.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, various volumes.