Biography
Early life and adoption
Cao Zhen was born in the late 2nd century in Qiao County, Pei Commandery (present-day Bozhou, Anhui). He was Cao Cao’s clan son.
According to Records of the Three Kingdoms, when Cao Cao raised troops to attack Dong Zhuo, Cao Zhen’s father Cao Shao recruited troops for Cao Cao but was killed by Huang Wan, Inspector of Yu Province. Cao Cao pitied Cao Zhen for being orphaned at a young age and therefore adopted him.
However, according to the Wei Lue cited by Pei Songzhi, Cao Zhen was originally surnamed Qin. His father Qin Shao (courtesy name Bonan) had long been friendly with Cao Cao. At the end of the Xingping period (195 CE), Yuan Shu’s followers attacked Cao Cao. Cao Cao went out and was pursued by bandits. He fled to Qin Shao’s place, and Qin Shao opened the door and received him.
The pursuers asked Qin Shao where Cao Cao was. Qin Shao replied: “I am he.” He was then killed. Because of this, Cao Cao thought of Qin Shao’s merit and therefore adopted Cao Zhen and changed his surname to Cao.
Early military service
After Cao Cao adopted Cao Zhen, he had Cao Zhen live together with Cao Pi and others.
Cao Zhen was strong and brave. Once, when hunting, a tiger followed behind him. Cao Zhen turned his horse and shot an arrow, and the tiger fell. Cao Cao praised his courage and bravery and had him lead the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry.
Cao Zhen attacked bandits at Lingqiu, captured it, and was enfeoffed as Marquis of Lingshou Pavilion.
Hanzhong Campaign
In 218 CE, Liu Bei led various generals to attack Hanzhong. Cao Zhen, as General of the Side, led his troops and, together with Cao Hong, General Who Protects All, Cao Xiu, Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers, and Zhang Ji, Inspector of Yong Province, defeated Wu Lan, a separate general under Liu Bei, at Xiabian.
Cao Zhen was appointed General of Firm Loyalty. In the ninth month, he followed Cao Cao on a personal campaign to Chang’an and was appointed General Who Commands the Army.
In 219 CE, Liu Bei crossed the Mian River south and killed Xiahou Yuan, Cao Cao’s commander, at Dingjunshan. Cao Cao was very worried about the Hanzhong campaign and therefore appointed Cao Zhen as Protector of the Campaign against Shu.
Cao Zhen later commanded Xu Huang and others at Yangping Pass and defeated Gao Xiang, a separate general under Liu Bei.
Cao Cao led troops from Chang’an into Hanzhong but was unable to defeat Liu Bei and therefore decided to abandon Hanzhong. Cao Cao ordered the various armies to withdraw from Hanzhong and ordered Cao Zhen to go to Wudu to welcome Cao Hong’s forces back to station at Chencang.
Service under Cao Pi
In 220 CE, when Cao Pi became King of Wei, he appointed Cao Zhen as General Who Guards the West with Credentials and Commander of military affairs in Yong and Liang Provinces. He recorded Cao Zhen’s previous and subsequent achievements and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Dongxiang.
At that time, Cao Pi began to establish the Inspector of Liang Province and appointed Zou Qi, Administrator of Anding, as Inspector. Zhang Jin, a man from Zhangye Commandery, held the Administrator hostage and rebelled at Jiuquan, leading troops to block Zou Qi from taking office.
Cao Zhen sent Fei Yao to advance troops and pacify Zhang Jin’s rebellion.
Campaign against the Qiang-Hu alliance
Cao Zhen later returned to Luoyang, was promoted to Grand General of the Upper Army, Commander of military affairs inside and outside, with Yellow Axe, becoming one of the highest commanders of Cao Wei’s army.
In the eleventh month of 221 CE, Zhi Yuanduo, Lushui, Feng Shang, and other Hu formed an alliance and rebelled in Hexi. Cao Zhen, then General Who Guards the West, led various generals to attack the Hu alliance and achieved great victory, pacifying Hexi.
According to the Wei Shu, in this battle, “over fifty thousand heads were cut off, over one hundred thousand captives were taken, over one million one hundred ten thousand sheep, and eighty thousand cattle.”
When the report of defeating the Hu reached Luoyang, Cao Pi was very happy and laughed, saying: “I plan strategy within the curtains, and the various generals fight bravely beyond ten thousand li. Their response is like matching tallies. Previous and subsequent battles and captures have never been so many.”
This battle reopened the road for communication between the Western Regions and the Central Plains. In the second month of the following year, the kings of Shanshan, Qiuci, and Yutian each sent envoys to present tribute, and Cao Wei restored Han’s rule over the Western Regions.
Campaign against Sun Quan
In 222 CE, Cao Pi attacked Sun Quan in three routes, ordering Cao Zhen, together with Xiahou Shang, Grand General Who Conquers the South, Zhang He, General of the Left, and Xu Huang, General of the Right, to lead the central army and attack Jiangling County in Nan Commandery.
Cao Zhen first defeated Sun Sheng, a Wu general, and together with Xiahou Shang, repelled Zhuge Jin, who came to reinforce, captured Jiangling Central Island, and completely surrounded Jiangling City.
Cao Zhen ordered soldiers to pile up earth mounds, dig tunnels, and erect watchtowers by the city, shooting arrows into the city. However, Zhu Ran, the Wu defending general, commanded appropriately and once broke through two camp fortifications.
The army surrounded the city for six months. The Wu army’s grain was almost exhausted, and the city was about to fall, but a great epidemic broke out. Sun Quan again sent envoys to present tribute, and the Wei army withdrew.
Afterward, Cao Zhen was transferred to Grand General of the Central Army and given the additional title of Palace Attendant.
Regent
In 226 CE, Cao Pi died. Cao Zhen, together with Chen Qun, General Who Guards the Army, Cao Xiu, Grand General Who Conquers the East, and Sima Yi, General Who Assists the Army, were four regents in the edict of entrustment to assist in government.
After Emperor Ming Cao Rui ascended the throne, Cao Zhen was enfeoffed as Marquis of Shaoling and transferred to Grand General, his position second only to Cao Xiu, Grand Marshal.
Defending against Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions
In 228 CE, Zhuge Liang, Chancellor of Shu Han, launched a Northern Expedition. Nan’an, Tianshui, and Anding commanderies all surrendered to Shu Han.
Cao Rui therefore personally campaigned to Chang’an and sent Cao Zhen to command various armies stationed at Mei. Cao Zhen sent Zhang He, General of the Right, to advance troops to rescue and, at the Battle of Jieting, greatly defeated Ma Su.
At the same time, Cao Zhen defeated Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi’s separate force at Jigu.
Reinforcement troops advanced into Longyou. Zhuge Liang, to avoid being attacked from both sides, therefore withdrew.
Initially, Yang Tiao and others from Anding had kidnapped officials and held Yuezhucheng in response to Zhuge Liang. When Cao Zhen’s army reached Anding, Yang Tiao said to his followers: “The Grand General has personally come. I am willing to surrender early.” He therefore bound himself and came out to surrender.
The three commanderies were thus recovered one by one.
Predicting the attack on Chencang
After the battle, Cao Zhen believed that Zhuge Liang would certainly attack Chencang and therefore ordered Hao Zhao and Wang Sheng, generals, to guard Chencang and build the city walls.
In the spring of the following year, Zhuge Liang indeed attacked Chencang. Hao Zhao had already prepared and fought, and Zhuge Liang could not capture it. At the same time, the Shu Han army’s military grain was insufficient, causing Zhuge Liang to withdraw without achievement.
Cao Zhen was rewarded for his achievements, and his fief was increased to two thousand nine hundred households.
Grand Marshal
In 230 CE, Cao Zhen entered court, succeeded Cao Xiu, and was transferred to Grand Marshal. He was granted the privilege to wear a sword and shoes in court and was not required to hasten his steps when entering court.
Cao Zhen submitted a memorial believing that Shu Han had repeatedly violated the border and suggested attacking Shu Han with several routes of troops, which could achieve great victory.
Cao Rui accepted this, but Chen Qun, Minister over the Masses, opposed the plan to advance from Xiegu. Cao Zhen again submitted a memorial requesting to attack Hanzhong from the Ziwu Road. Chen Qun again stated reasons why troops could not be sent and believed that large-scale campaigns would cost a great deal in military expenses.
Cao Rui issued an edict providing Chen Qun’s opinion to Cao Zhen for reference, but Cao Zhen accordingly issued an edict and immediately set out, changing to advance from the Ziwu Road.
He separately sent Sima Yi, Grand General, to advance troops along the Han River, and Guo Huai, Fei Yao, and other forces advanced from Xiegu or from Wuwei.
Later, because Hanzhong was difficult and dangerous and it happened to be the rainy season, the plank roads were washed away and cut off by rain. Cao Zhen used one month and had only walked half the distance.
Court ministers Hua Xin, Yang Fu, Wang Su, and others all submitted memorials advising Cao Rui to issue an edict to withdraw the army. By the ninth month, Cao Zhen had no choice but to receive the edict and withdraw.
Death and legacy
After Cao Zhen returned to Luoyang due to illness, Cao Rui personally went to his residence to visit him.
In the third month of 231 CE, Cao Zhen died. He was posthumously titled Marquis Yuan. His eldest son Cao Shuang inherited the marquis title.
Cao Rui, thinking of Cao Zhen’s achievements, issued an edict saying: “The Grand Marshal throughout his life was loyal and filial, maintained integrity and righteousness, and assisted the two ancestors. Internally, he did not rely on being a relative to seek favour. Externally, he did not look down on poor scholars. He can truly be said to be one who can maintain success and keep his position, labouring with humility and virtue.”
He enfeoffed Cao Zhen’s five sons Xi, Xun, Ze, Yan, and Ai as Marquises.
Cao Zhen, when young, together with Cao Zun, a member of the same clan, and Zhu Zan, a fellow villager, served under Cao Cao. Cao Zun and Zhu Zan died early. Cao Zhen pitied them and submitted a memorial dividing his own fief and enfeoffing their sons, which was approved.
Cao Zhen, every time he campaigned, could share hardships and pleasures with his officers and soldiers. When military expenses were insufficient, he used his own family’s wealth to reward them. Therefore, soldiers were all willing to serve him.
In 243 CE, in the seventh month, Cao Fang, Emperor of Wei, issued an edict to sacrifice to Cao Zhen, together with Cao Xiu, Xiahou Shang, Huan Jie, Chen Qun, Zhong Yao, Zhang He, Xu Huang, Zhang Liao, Yue Jin, Hua Xin, Wang Lang, Cao Hong, Xiahou Yuan, Zhu Ling, Wen Pin, Zang Ba, Li Dian, Pang De, and Dian Wei—twenty ministers who had outstanding achievements for the Wei dynasty—in the Temple of Emperor Taizu (Cao Cao).
Personality
Cao Zhen was known for his strength and bravery. When hunting, he once shot and killed a tiger that was following him, earning Cao Cao’s praise.
He was also known for his care for his officers and soldiers. Every time he campaigned, he could share hardships and pleasures with them. When military expenses were insufficient, he used his own family’s wealth to reward them, so soldiers were all willing to serve him.
He was also known for his compassion. When Cao Zun and Zhu Zan, who had served with him under Cao Cao, died early, he pitied their sons and divided his own fief to enfeoff them.
He was described as having “deep and profound wisdom, unfathomable as an abyss” by Cao Zhi.
Military achievements
Hanzhong Campaign
Cao Zhen participated in the Hanzhong Campaign, defeating Wu Lan at Xiabian and Gao Xiang at Yangping Pass.
Campaign against the Qiang-Hu alliance
Cao Zhen achieved a great victory against the Qiang-Hu alliance in Hexi, cutting off over fifty thousand heads, taking over one hundred thousand captives, and pacifying the region. This reopened communication between the Western Regions and the Central Plains.
Campaign against Sun Quan
Cao Zhen defeated Sun Sheng and repelled Zhuge Jin’s reinforcements, capturing Jiangling Central Island and surrounding Jiangling City. Although the city was not captured due to an epidemic, the campaign showed Cao Zhen’s military ability.
Defending against Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions
Cao Zhen successfully defended against Zhuge Liang’s first Northern Expedition, sending Zhang He to defeat Ma Su at Jieting and defeating Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi at Jigu. He recovered the three commanderies that had surrendered to Shu Han.
Predicting the attack on Chencang
Cao Zhen correctly predicted that Zhuge Liang would attack Chencang and prepared defences accordingly. When Zhuge Liang attacked the following year, Hao Zhao was able to defend successfully, and Zhuge Liang withdrew without achievement.
Relationships
With Cao Cao
Cao Cao adopted Cao Zhen after his father died protecting Cao Cao. Cao Cao greatly valued Cao Zhen, having him lead the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry and treating him like a son.
With Cao Pi
Cao Pi greatly trusted Cao Zhen, appointing him to important positions and making him one of four regents in his will.
With Cao Rui
Cao Rui continued to trust Cao Zhen, appointing him Grand General and then Grand Marshal. After Cao Zhen’s death, Cao Rui personally visited his residence and issued an edict praising his achievements.
With Cao Shuang
Cao Zhen’s son Cao Shuang succeeded him as Grand General and became a regent. However, Cao Shuang was killed in the Gaopingling Incident in 249, and Cao Zhen’s line was extinguished.
Anecdotes
Shooting the tiger
When Cao Zhen was hunting, a tiger followed behind him. He turned his horse and shot an arrow, and the tiger fell. Cao Cao praised his courage and bravery and had him lead the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry.
The “Jingfan” horse
Cao Zhen had a famous horse named “Jingfan” (驚帆), meaning “startled sail,” so named because when it ran, it was like a fierce wind raising a sail.
Sharing wealth with soldiers
Cao Zhen was known for sharing hardships and pleasures with his officers and soldiers. When military expenses were insufficient, he used his own family’s wealth to reward them, so soldiers were all willing to serve him.
Enfeoffing the sons of deceased colleagues
When Cao Zun and Zhu Zan, who had served with Cao Zhen under Cao Cao, died early, Cao Zhen pitied their sons and divided his own fief to enfeoff them, showing his compassion.
Predicting Chencang
After Zhuge Liang’s first Northern Expedition, Cao Zhen correctly predicted that Zhuge Liang would attack Chencang and prepared defences accordingly. When Zhuge Liang attacked the following year, Hao Zhao was able to defend successfully.
Achievements
- Defeated Wu Lan at Xiabian during Hanzhong Campaign
- Defeated Gao Xiang at Yangping Pass
- Achieved great victory against Qiang-Hu alliance in Hexi
- Reopened communication between Western Regions and Central Plains
- Defeated Sun Sheng and repelled Zhuge Jin at Jiangling
- Successfully defended against Zhuge Liang’s first Northern Expedition
- Correctly predicted Zhuge Liang’s attack on Chencang
- Achieved rank of Grand Marshal
- Served as one of four regents
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Cao Zhen’s biography appears in Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Xiahou Dun, Xiahou Yuan, Cao Ren, Cao Hong, Cao Xiu, and others. Chen Shou wrote: “The Xiahou and Cao families intermarried for generations, so Dun, Yuan, Ren, Hong, Xiu, Shang, Zhen, and others, as relatives and old friends, were valued in their time, assisting in achievements, all having effective service.”
The adoption
There is some uncertainty about Cao Zhen’s origins. According to Records of the Three Kingdoms, his father Cao Shao was killed while recruiting troops for Cao Cao. However, according to the Wei Lue, Cao Zhen was originally surnamed Qin, and his father Qin Shao died protecting Cao Cao. Both accounts agree that Cao Cao adopted Cao Zhen after his father’s death.
The regency
Cao Zhen was one of four regents appointed by Cao Pi to assist Cao Rui, along with Chen Qun, Cao Xiu, and Sima Yi. This shows the trust placed in him and his importance to the Cao Wei state.
Defending against Zhuge Liang
Cao Zhen successfully defended against Zhuge Liang’s first Northern Expedition, sending Zhang He to defeat Ma Su at Jieting and correctly predicting the attack on Chencang. His achievements in defending against Zhuge Liang are significant.
The campaign against Shu Han
Cao Zhen’s campaign against Shu Han in 230 CE was unsuccessful due to difficult terrain and heavy rain. However, his strategic thinking in planning a multi-pronged attack shows his military ability.
The extinction of his line
Cao Zhen’s son Cao Shuang succeeded him but was killed in the Gaopingling Incident in 249, and Cao Zhen’s line was extinguished. However, a clan grandson Cao Xi was later enfeoffed as Marquis of Xinchang Pavilion to continue Cao Zhen’s line.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Cao Rui said: “The Grand Marshal has the benevolence of Shu Xiang in caring for orphans and the faithfulness of Yan Ping in long-standing commitments.”
Cao Rui also said: “The Grand Marshal throughout his life was loyal and filial, maintained integrity and righteousness, and assisted the two ancestors. Internally, he did not rely on being a relative to seek favour. Externally, he did not look down on poor scholars. He can truly be said to be one who can maintain success and keep his position, labouring with humility and virtue.”
Cao Zhi said: “Deep and profound wisdom, unfathomable as an abyss. Maintained integrity and pacified enemies, a bulwark inside and outside. Respectful in serving superiors, loving in receiving inferiors. Accepted words from left and right, the emperor’s mouth and tongue. This is General Cao.”
Huan Fan said: “Cao Zidan is an excellent person!”
Yang Tiao said: “The Grand General has personally come. I am willing to surrender early.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “The Xiahou and Cao families intermarried for generations, so Dun, Yuan, Ren, Hong, Xiu, Shang, Zhen, and others, as relatives and old friends, were valued in their time, assisting in achievements, all having effective service.”
Jiang Ji said: “Cao Zhen’s achievements cannot go without sacrifice.”
Legacy
Cao Zhen is remembered as a capable general who successfully defended against Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions. His correct prediction of the attack on Chencang and his preparation of defences show his strategic thinking.
He is also remembered for his care for his officers and soldiers, sharing hardships and pleasures with them and using his own wealth to reward them when military expenses were insufficient.
His service as one of four regents shows the trust placed in him by Cao Pi and Cao Rui, and his achievements in pacifying Hexi and reopening communication with the Western Regions show his importance to the Cao Wei state.
However, his line was extinguished when his son Cao Shuang was killed in the Gaopingling Incident, though a clan grandson was later enfeoffed to continue his line.
His story represents both achievement and tragedy—a general who served the Cao family loyally and achieved great success but whose line was extinguished by political conflict.
Timeline
- Late 2nd century CE: Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery
- c. 195 CE: Father died protecting Cao Cao; adopted by Cao Cao
- c. 210 CE: Attacked bandits at Lingqiu; enfeoffed as Marquis of Lingshou Pavilion
- 218 CE: Participated in Hanzhong Campaign; defeated Wu Lan at Xiabian; appointed General of Firm Loyalty; appointed General Who Commands the Army
- 219 CE: Appointed Protector of Campaign against Shu; defeated Gao Xiang at Yangping Pass; welcomed Cao Hong’s forces back to Chencang
- 220 CE: Appointed General Who Guards the West; Commander of Yong and Liang Provinces; enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongxiang; pacified Zhang Jin’s rebellion
- 221 CE: Promoted to Grand General of the Upper Army; Commander of military affairs inside and outside; achieved great victory against Qiang-Hu alliance in Hexi
- 222 CE: Campaign against Sun Quan; defeated Sun Sheng; repelled Zhuge Jin; surrounded Jiangling; transferred to Grand General of the Central Army
- 226 CE: Made one of four regents; enfeoffed as Marquis of Shaoling; appointed Grand General
- 228 CE: Defended against Zhuge Liang’s first Northern Expedition; sent Zhang He to defeat Ma Su at Jieting; defeated Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi at Jigu; recovered three commanderies; predicted attack on Chencang
- 229 CE: Zhuge Liang attacked Chencang; Hao Zhao defended successfully; Zhuge Liang withdrew
- 230 CE: Appointed Grand Marshal; planned campaign against Shu Han; campaign failed due to rain
- 231 CE: Died in third month; posthumously titled Marquis Yuan
- 243 CE: Enshrined in Cao Cao’s temple
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 9, Biography of Cao Zhen.
- Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms.
- Yu Huan. Wei Lue.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, various volumes.