Lu Xun (simplified: 陆逊, traditional: 陸遜, pinyin: Lù Xùn), originally Lu Yi (陆议 Lù Yì), courtesy name Boyan (伯言 Bóyán), was a general and chancellor of Eastern Wu. He came from the Wu commandery Lu clan, served Sun Quan for over forty years, and for more than twenty years led Wu’s military and civil affairs in Jing Province and at Wuchang. He helped Lü Meng take Jing Province by softening Guan Yu’s vigilance, commanded the defence at Yiling and destroyed Liu Bei’s army with fire, and at Shiting crushed Cao Xiu’s invasion. He was appointed Supreme General and Right Protector, tutored the heir Sun Deng, and in his last year became Chancellor. He repeatedly memorialised on the Two Palaces dispute in favour of the crown prince Sun He; Sun Quan rebuked him through envoys, and Lu Xun died soon after (some sources say by suicide). Sun Xiu later granted him the posthumous title Marquis Zhao (昭侯).
Biography
Early life and entry into Sun Quan’s service
Lu Xun was born in 183 in Wu commandery (Wu County; some sources place his birth at Huating, modern Songjiang). He was from the prominent Lu family of Wu. His father Lu Jun (陆骏) served as Colonel of Jiujiang and died when Lu Xun was young. Lu Xun lived for a time with his grandfather’s cousin Lu Kang (陆康), Administrator of Lujiang. When Yuan Shu sent Sun Ce to attack Lujiang (194–195), Lu Kang held out for two years; the clan suffered heavy losses from famine and war. Lu Kang sent the young Lu Xun and his own son Lu Ji back to Wu commandery. Lu Xun was several years older than Lu Ji and helped maintain the household. In Wu, Lu Ji and his cousin Gu Shao were known for broad learning; Lu Xun, Zhang Dun, and Bu Jing were ranked just below them.
In 203, at twenty-one, Lu Xun entered Sun Quan’s staff. He served as clerk in the East and West Bureaus, then as Colonel of Agricultural Garrisons and acting magistrate of Haichang. The county had repeated droughts; he opened the granaries to relieve the poor and oversaw farming, winning local trust. He memorialised that suppressing the bandits and shanyue in Wu, Kuaiji, and Danyang would allow expansion of troops and territory. Sun Quan sent him to pacify the rebels. He put down the long-standing bandit chief Pan Lin in Kuaiji and built a personal following of over two thousand. In 216 he joined He Qi in suppressing the Poyang rebel You Tu and was appointed Establish Authority Colonel, garrisoning Lipu.
Adviser and pacification of the highlanders
Sun Quan gave him his brother Sun Ce’s daughter in marriage and often consulted him on policy. Lu Xun advised that the realm was like a board game, that internal bandits had to be settled before external expansion, and that the army should be enlarged and the best men selected. Sun Quan agreed and made him Commander of the Right Section of the Headquarters, in charge of the guard, and granted him staff and halberd to supervise Kuaiji, Poyang, and Danyang. When the Danyang chief Fei Zhan accepted Cao Cao’s seal and stirred the shanyue, Sun Quan sent Lu Xun to attack. Lu Xun was outnumbered; he set many flags and drums, moved troops by night into the valleys, then had them beat drums and advance at once. The enemy broke and Fei Zhan’s men scattered. Lu Xun pacified the three commanderies, drew tens of thousands of able-bodied men into the army and weaker ones into the registers, and returned to garrison Wuhu. The Kuaiji administrator Chunyu Shi once accused him of illegally conscripting people. When Lu Xun returned to the capital he recommended Chunyu Shi as a good official who cared for the people. Sun Quan said that was the conduct of a true elder.
Taking Jing Province and the campaign against Guan Yu
In 219 Guan Yu attacked Cao Ren at Fancheng and left troops in Gong’an and Nan commandery. The Wu commander Lü Meng planned to take Jing Province and feigned illness to return to Jianye. The thirty-seven-year-old Lu Xun went to see him and said that Guan Yu was proud of his victories, looked down on others, and was focused on the north; if he heard Lü Meng was ill he would drop his guard, so a surprise strike could capture him. Lü Meng did not reveal the plan but after reaching Jianye recommended Lu Xun as deep-thinking and able to bear great responsibility yet little known to Guan Yu. Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun General of the Right Army and Right Army Commander in Lü Meng’s place.
At Lukou, Lu Xun wrote to Guan Yu in humble, flattering terms. Guan Yu relaxed his vigilance and shifted troops north to Fancheng, weakening the Jing Province garrisons. In the eleventh month of 219 Sun Quan launched a secret attack with Lü Meng and Lu Xun in the van. They took Gong’an and Nan commandery; Lu Xun was made Administrator of Yidu, General Who Pacifies the Border, and Marquis of Huating. While Lü Meng pursued Guan Yu, Lu Xun advanced by another route, took Fangling and Nanxiang, and defeated or forced the surrender of the Yidu administrator Fan You, the Fangling administrator Deng Fu, the Nanxiang administrator Guo Mu, and the local leaders Wen Bu and Deng Kai, cutting Guan Yu’s escape into Yi and blocking Liu Bei’s relief. He memorialised that the newly subdued Jing Province needed broad recruitment of talent; Sun Quan agreed. Some Jing figures defected; Wen Bu, who had fled to Liu Bei, was induced to return with his men. Sun Quan promoted Lu Xun to Right Protector General, General Who Guards the West, and Marquis of Lou, and had the Governor of Yang Province recruit him as别驾 and recommend him as Xiu Cai to honour him.
Yiling and defence against Shu
In 221 Liu Bei marched east to avenge Guan Yu and recover Jing Province. Sun Quan sent envoys to seek peace; Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan submitted to Wei to avoid a second front and put Lu Xun in overall command (大都督, with staff) to face Shu. In the second month of 222 the Shu army reached Yiling and Zigui and set a long chain of camps; they also had support from the Wuling “Five Streams” tribes. Shu challenged repeatedly; Wu officers wanted to fight, but Lu Xun held back. He judged that Shu was at the height of its vigour, that the Three Gorges were narrow and supply difficult for the defender, and that Wu should withdraw to favourable ground and wait. He pulled back to the Yiling–Xiaoting area, blocked the mouth of the gorges, and held without giving battle. The two sides stood for about half a year. In the sixth month, in the summer heat, the Shu army grew tired and moved camps into the woods. Lu Xun launched a counterattack: he used fire against the camps and coordinated with Zhu Ran and others to seal the river and the Yiling road, overran some forty camps, and destroyed Shu’s boats, equipment, and stores; corpses filled the river. Feng Xi, Zhang Nan, Fu Rong, Ma Liang, Wang Fu, and the tribal chief Shamoke were killed; Huang Quan, cut off on the north bank, surrendered to Wei. Liu Bei fled by night to Baidi. Wu generals asked to pursue; Lu Xun refused, judging that Cao Pi had massed troops under the pretext of helping Wu against Shu and would attack, so he withdrew to Jiangling. Cao Pi did invade shortly after but found Wu prepared and withdrew. Liu Bei wrote to Lu Xun asking what he would do if Shu attacked again; Lu Xun replied that the defeated army should seek peace and rest, and that if they came again he would not spare them. Sun Quan promoted Lu Xun to General Who Supports the State, Governor of Jing Province, and Marquis of Jiangling, and had him guard Xiling.
Trusted minister and Shiting
After Liu Bei’s death Zhuge Liang restored the Sun–Liu alliance. Sun Quan had all Wu–Shu business go through Lu Xun; documents to Shu were shown to Lu Xun first and he could revise them. Sun Quan had a seal made for Lu Xun to use in dealings with Shu. In 226 Lu Xun memorialised that his area lacked grain and that officers should open more farmland; Sun Quan replied that he and his son would also take a share and till with eight oxen. Lu Xun also urged lighter punishments and taxes; Sun Quan had the draft ordinances sent to Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin for comment.
In 228 Cao Xiu of Wei advanced into Wu after Zhou Fang’s feigned surrender. Sun Quan gave Lu Xun the yellow axe (假黄钺), personally held the whip for him, and had the officials bow to him. Lu Xun led Zhu Huan, Quan Cong, Zhou Fang, and others, about ninety thousand men, against Cao Xiu. At Shiting, with Lu Xun in the centre and Zhu Huan and Quan Cong on the wings, Wu routed the Wei army, killed or captured over ten thousand, and took countless carts and supplies. Cao Xiu escaped with a remnant; he died soon after from shame and anger. On Lu Xun’s return Sun Quan gave him his own canopy, had his attendants cover Lu Xun with it, took off his own belt and put it on Lu Xun, gave him silks and red lacquer, and at a banquet had him dance and gave him his white flying-squirrel fur; he also danced with Lu Xun and later gave him an imperial boat for the journey back to Xiling.
Tutoring the heir and guarding the west
In 229 Sun Quan assumed the imperial title. He created the post of Supreme General above the General-in-Chief and appointed Lu Xun Supreme General and Right Protector. When Sun Quan moved east to Jianye he left the heir Sun Deng and other princes and officials at Wuchang under Lu Xun, who also took charge of Jing Province and three commanderies of Yang (including Yuzhang) and of major military and state affairs. Sun Quan had Lu Xun instruct the princes. When Sun Lü (孙虑) was fond of duck-fighting, Lu Xun told him to read the classics instead; Sun Lü had the duck pen removed. When Sun Song (Sun Yi’s son) let his troops run loose, Lu Xun had his subordinates shaved in his presence and rebuked him. The heir’s guest Xie Jing praised Liu Yi’s “punishment before ritual”; Lu Xun rebuked Xie Jing and said ritual was superior to punishment and that such talk was not fit for the heir’s court.
Xiangyang campaign and White Weir
In 234 Sun Quan went north; Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin were to attack Xiangyang. Lu Xun sent a relative Han Bian with a memorial to the court; on the return trip Han Bian was captured by the enemy. Zhuge Jin wrote in alarm that the enemy now knew their situation and the river was low, and urged a quick withdrawal. Lu Xun did not reply; he had men plant vegetables and played weiqi and archery as usual. Zhuge Jin came to see him. Lu Xun said that now that the sovereign had left, the enemy would concentrate on them; they should stay calm, then use a ruse to withdraw. If they showed they were leaving, the enemy would think they were afraid and press in. So they agreed that Zhuge Jin would keep the boats while Lu Xun led the army toward Xiangyang. The enemy, fearing Lu Xun, withdrew into the city. Zhuge Jin brought the boats out and Lu Xun formed up and embarked with full display; the enemy did not dare pursue and the army withdrew safely. At Bai Wei, Lu Xun secretly sent Zhou Jun and Zhang Liang to raid Xinshi, Anlu, and Shiyang in Jiangxia. At Shiyang many people were in the market; when Wu troops appeared they rushed for the gates and the defenders had to kill their own people to close the gates. Wu killed or captured over a thousand. Lu Xun had captives protected and comforted; those with families were looked after, and those who had lost relatives were given clothes and grain and sent home, so that some came over to Wu. He also forged a letter to the Wei Jiangxia administrator Lu Shi (who was at odds with Wen Xiu) suggesting Lu Shi was defecting; the letter was left on the border, Wei picked it up, and Lu Shi’s men lost trust in him; he was later dismissed.
Chancellor and the Two Palaces dispute
In 244, after Gu Yong’s death, Sun Quan made Lu Xun Chancellor, in charge of the Three Dukes, while he kept his posts as Right Protector, Governor of Jing Province, and Wuchang garrison. Lu Xun was soon caught in the struggle between the heir Sun He and the King of Lu Sun Ba. Quan Zong’s son Quan Ji was close to Sun Ba; Lu Xun wrote to Quan Zong urging him to follow Jin Midi’s example and kill Quan Ji to protect the family; Quan Zong refused and the two fell out. According to the Wu lu, Sun Quan once spoke privately with Yang Zhu about making Sun Ba heir; a servant under the bed overheard and told Sun He. Sun He feared deposition and had the official Lu Yin (Lu Xun’s clansman), who was going to Wuchang, ask Lu Xun to memorialise. Lu Xun did so several times, stressing that the heir was the orthodoxy and the King of Lu a feudatory and that their ranks should differ; he also asked to come to Jianye to explain in person. Sun Quan did not allow it and began to investigate the leak. Yang Zhu and Lu Yin were arrested; Lu Xun’s nephews Gu Tan and Gu Cheng and Yao Xin were exiled for supporting the heir (and, in the case of the Gu, after Quan Zong’s family accused them over rewards for the Shaopi campaign); the heir’s tutor Wu Can was executed for corresponding with Lu Xun. Sun Quan repeatedly sent eunuchs to rebuke Lu Xun. Lu Xun died in 245 at sixty-three; his household had no surplus wealth. Some later texts (e.g. Shiji xubian, Jin Chunqiu, Thirty States Chunqiu) state that he committed suicide or hanged himself. His son Lu Kang was made Colonel Who Establishes Might and given five thousand of his father’s troops. When Lu Kang went to the capital, Sun Quan had an envoy question him on twenty charges that Yang Zhu had laid against Lu Xun; Lu Kang answered each and Sun Quan’s anger eased. In 251 Sun Quan wept to Lu Kang and said he had been wrong to listen to slander and had wronged Lu Xun, and ordered the interrogation documents burned.
Personality and traits
Virtues and abilities
Lu Xun was loyal and outspoken, selfless in speech and solemn in court. He lived simply and was content with little. He advocated lenient laws, lighter corvée, and nurturing the people, and argued that ritual was superior to punishment; he rebuked Xie Jing for promoting “punishment before ritual” in the heir’s presence. He was strict with the princes: he stopped Sun Lü’s duck-fighting and disciplined Sun Song’s troops and reprimanded Sun Song to his face. He recommended Chunyu Shi although Chunyu had accused him. He interceded for Meng Zong when the latter broke the law by leaving office to mourn his mother. Sun Quan compared him to Yi Yin and Lü Shang and said he bore both civil and martial responsibility; he entrusted him with the seal for Shu relations and with tutoring the heir—a rare level of trust.
Temperament
He was calm under pressure: at White Weir he kept planting and playing weiqi while Zhuge Jin panicked, then withdrew by a ruse. He endured the contempt of senior officers before Yiling and only after the victory did they submit. His strategic caution showed in refusing to pursue Liu Bei deep into Shu for fear of Cao Pi and in opposing risky ventures such as attacking Yizhou and Zhuya.
Military achievements
Command and strategy
Lu Xun expanded the army by pacifying the shanyue with a mix of show (flags, drums, night manoeuvres) and attack, and used the same kind of deception against Fei Zhan. In the capture of Jing Province he advised Lü Meng and then, at Lukou, softened Guan Yu with flattering letters so that Guan Yu stripped his rear. At Yiling he gave ground, held the line for months, and when the Shu army was exhausted and camped in the woods he launched a coordinated fire attack and broke the enemy; he then stopped the pursuit to guard against Wei. At Shiting he commanded the centre in a set-piece battle and routed Cao Xiu. At Xiangyang he kept calm when his messenger was captured, feinted toward the city to make the enemy withdraw, then withdrew in good order; he also used a forged letter to discredit the Wei border commander Lu Shi.
Notable battles
- Pacification of Pan Lin and You Tu (c. 203–216): Led troops in Wu and Kuaiji; put down Pan Lin and, with He Qi, You Tu in Poyang.
- Pacification of Fei Zhan (217): Outnumbered; used flags, drums, and night advance to break Fei Zhan and the Danyang shanyue; drew tens of thousands into the army and registers.
- Capture of Jing Province (219): Replaced Lü Meng at Lukou; wrote to Guan Yu to lower his guard; took part in the strike on Gong’an and Nan commandery; advanced on Fangling, Nanxiang, Yidu; cut Guan Yu’s retreat and blocked Liu Bei.
- Yiling (Xiaoting) (222): Overall commander; held the line, then counterattacked with fire; overran some forty camps; refused to pursue into Shu.
- Shiting (228): Commander-in-chief with yellow axe; centre of the line; defeated Cao Xiu and captured huge quantities of equipment.
Political achievements
Lu Xun served as Administrator of Yidu and then Governor of Jing Province for more than twenty years, and as Right Protector and Supreme General. He advised Sun Quan to expand the army and pacify the shanyue, to recruit talent from Jing Province, and to lighten punishments and taxes. He tutored the heir Sun Deng and other princes at Wuchang and handled Wu–Shu diplomacy with Sun Quan’s seal. As Chancellor (244–245) he was in charge of the Three Dukes while retaining the Wuchang garrison and Jing Province.
Relationships
Family
His father Lu Jun died early; his grandfather’s cousin Lu Kang (Administrator of Lujiang) died after Sun Ce’s siege. His brother Lu Mao (陆瑁) served as Selector of the Secretariat and died in 239. He married Sun Ce’s daughter (Lady Sun). His elder son Lu Yan (陆延) died young; his second son Lu Kang (陆抗) inherited the marquisate and became a leading general. His sister married Gu Shao; their sons Gu Tan and Gu Cheng were exiled in the Two Palaces dispute.
Lord and colleagues
He served Sun Quan from 203 until his death. Lü Meng recommended him to replace himself at Lukou and to use a humble stance toward Guan Yu. He worked with Zhu Ran, Quan Cong, and Zhou Fang at Yiling and Shiting, and with Zhuge Jin in the Xiangyang campaign. His repeated memorials on the heir’s behalf and Sun Quan’s rebukes through eunuchs led to his death and later to Sun Quan’s apology to Lu Kang.
Anecdotes and allusions
Recommending Chunyu Shi
荐淳于式 (Jiàn Chúnyú Shì)
When Chunyu Shi had accused Lu Xun of illegally conscripting people, Lu Xun later recommended him to Sun Quan as a good official. Sun Quan asked why he would recommend someone who had accused him. Lu Xun said Chunyu’s aim was to benefit the people, so he had accused him; if he then slandered Chunyu he would be encouraging bad practice. Sun Quan said that was the conduct of a true elder.
Source: SGZ (Lu Xun zhuan)
Type: Historical
Enduring humiliation to fulfil a mission
忍辱负重 (Rěnrǔ fùzhòng)
Before Yiling, senior Wu officers did not accept Lu Xun’s authority. He said that although he was a scholar he had received the lord’s order, and that the state had placed them under him because it believed he could endure humiliation and bear the responsibility. After the victory the generals submitted. The phrase “endure humiliation to fulfil a heavy task” is often traced to this.
Source: SGZ (Lu Xun zhuan)
Type: Historical
Sharing the dance and gifts after Shiting
解衣共舞 (Jiěyī gòngwǔ)
After Shiting, Sun Quan gave Lu Xun his own canopy, belt, silks, and white flying-squirrel fur, had him dance at a banquet, danced with him, and gave him an imperial boat. The historian notes that no one else received such favours.
Source: SGZ (Lu Xun zhuan), Wu shu
Type: Historical
Achievements
- Military: Pacified Pan Lin, You Tu, and Fei Zhan; expanded troops from shanyue; helped take Jing Province by softening Guan Yu; commanded at Yiling and destroyed Liu Bei’s army with fire; commanded at Shiting and crushed Cao Xiu; withdrew safely from Xiangyang and used a forged letter to remove the Wei border commander.
- Political: Governor of Jing Province for over twenty years; Supreme General and Right Protector; tutor to the heir and princes; handled Wu–Shu relations with Sun Quan’s seal; Chancellor in charge of the Three Dukes; advocated lighter laws and taxes and recruitment of Jing talent.
- Legacy: Remembered as a “pillar of the state,” compared by Sun Quan to Yi Yin and Lü Shang; posthumous title Marquis Zhao; later included among the sixty-four/sixty-two worthies in Tang and Song military temples.
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Lu Xun is covered in Sanguo zhi (Wu 13, Lu Xun zhuan) and in the annals and other biographies; Pei Songzhi cites the Wu lu, Wu shu, and Jin Chunqiu. Lu Yun’s Wu gu chengxiang Lu gong lei gives his death date (Chiwu 8, 2nd month, Yimao = 19 March 245).
Historical vs literary portrayal
The Romance gives him a central role at Yiling (Ch. 83–84): Sun Quan appoints him against the objections of Zhang Zhao and others; he holds the line then wins with fire; he is later trapped in Zhuge Liang’s stone array and is led out by Huang Chengyan. The novel does not emphasise the Two Palaces dispute or his death from Sun Quan’s rebukes; historically his end was tied to his support for Sun He and Sun Quan’s suspicion of a leak from the court.
Scholarly debates
Scholars debate whether he died from illness brought on by anger or by suicide (as in Shiji xubian and Jin Chunqiu). The role of the Two Palaces conflict and of Yang Zhu’s accusations in his death is also discussed. Pei Songzhi criticised the raid on Shiyang for causing civilian casualties and questioned whether it was consistent with proper use of force.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary assessments
- Lü Meng: “Lu Xun is deep and far-sighted and can bear heavy responsibility; from his planning he will achieve great things. He is not yet famous, so Guan Yu will not fear him—no one is better to replace me.”
- Sun Quan: “This is truly the conduct of an elder—others could not do it.” (on recommending Chunyu Shi); “You have succeeded to [Zhou Yu]”; “Like Yi Yin and Lü Shang, you combine inner and outer responsibilities”; “Lu Boyan is often strong in calculation—I fear in this one matter he falls short.” (on the Two Palaces).
- Liu Bei: “I have been humiliated by Lu Xun—is it not heaven?”
- Jia Xu: “Sun Quan understands the situation; Lu Yi sees the use of troops.”
- Chen Shou: “Liu Bei was the terror of the age; Lu Xun was in the prime of life and not yet famous, yet he broke him and had his way. I marvel at Lu Xun’s strategy and at Sun Quan’s recognition of talent… Lu Xun was loyal and devoted, worried about the state and forgot himself—he was truly a pillar of the state.”
Later evaluations
Later historians (e.g. Hao Jing, Luo Guanzhong) rank him with Zhou Yu, Lu Su, and Lü Meng as a cornerstone of Wu. He is included in Tang and Song military temple lists (e.g. Yan Zhenqing’s sixty-four, Song seventy-two). The phrase “endure humiliation to fulfil a heavy task” (忍辱负重) is associated with his conduct before Yiling.
Legacy
Lu Xun is remembered as one of Wu’s four great commanders (with Zhou Yu, Lu Su, Lü Meng) and as a chancellor who combined civil and military authority. His victory at Yiling is a classic example of defensive strategy and fire attack; his death in the Two Palaces affair illustrates the risks of remonstrance under an ageing ruler. He appears in opera, television (e.g. Romance of the Three Kingdoms 1994, Three Kingdoms 2010), and games (e.g. Dynasty Warriors, Total War: Three Kingdoms).
Timeline
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 183 | Born in Wu commandery (or Huating) |
| 194–195 | With Lu Kang in Lujiang; Sun Ce’s siege; return to Wu |
| 203 | Enters Sun Quan’s staff; East/West Bureau clerk; Haichang magistrate |
| 216 | With He Qi against You Tu; Establish Authority Colonel |
| 217 | Commander Right Section; pacifies Fei Zhan; recommends Chunyu Shi |
| 219 | Replaces Lü Meng at Lukou; letters to Guan Yu; capture of Jing; Yidu, Fubian General, Huating Hou; Right Protector General, Zhenxi General, Lou Hou |
| 221–222 | Liu Bei invades; Lu Xun commander-in-chief at Yiling |
| 222 (6th month) | Fire attack; defeat of Liu Bei; General Who Supports the State, Jing Province Governor, Marquis of Jiangling |
| 228 | Shiting; defeat of Cao Xiu; Supreme General, Right Protector (229) |
| 229 | Sun Quan assumed the imperial title; Lu Xun tutors heir at Wuchang |
| 234 | Xiangyang campaign; White Weir raid; forged letter to Lu Shi |
| 244 | Chancellor; Two Palaces dispute; repeated memorials; Sun Quan’s rebukes |
| 245 (19 Mar) | Death at sixty-three; Lu Kang succeeds |