Biography
Early life and flight to Wu
Cao Xiu was born around the 170s CE in Qiao County, Pei Commandery (present-day Bozhou, Anhui). He was Cao Cao’s clan son (nephew). His grandfather Cao Ding had served as Administrator of Hejian, Administrator of Wu Commandery, and Director of the Imperial Secretariat.
At the beginning of the Chuping period (190 CE), in the first month, the realm was in chaos, and the Cao clan scattered and left their hometowns. At that time, Cao Xiu was over ten years old and had just lost his father. He alone, together with a guest, carried his father’s coffin and temporarily rented a burial plot to bury his father. Then he took his elderly mother and crossed the river to Wu to seek refuge, where he was taken in by the Administrator of Wu Commandery.
According to the Wei Shu, Cao Xiu’s grandfather had once been Administrator of Wu Commandery. Cao Xiu, together with the administrator, often saw his grandfather’s portrait on the wall and would stay there, weep, and bow to his grandfather. Those who lived together all praised him and felt sad.
Return to Cao Cao
In 189 CE, when Cao Cao raised righteous troops, Cao Xiu changed his name and returned north to the Central Plains to pay respects to Cao Cao.
Cao Cao said to those around him: “This is our family’s thousand-li colt.” He had Cao Xiu stay together with Cao Pi and treated him like a son. Cao Xiu often followed Cao Cao on campaigns and was made to lead the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry in guarding.
Battle of Xiabian
In 219 CE, Liu Bei sent Wu Lan, a Shu general, to station at Xiabian. Cao Cao sent Cao Hong to attack them, appointing Cao Xiu as Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers to participate in Cao Hong’s military affairs.
Cao Cao said to Cao Xiu: “Although you are named a participant in military affairs, you are actually the commander.” When Cao Hong heard this order, he also entrusted affairs to Cao Xiu.
Liu Bei saw that Cao forces had advanced to Xiabian and sent Zhang Fei to station at Gushan, wanting to cut off the Cao army’s rear. The various generals discussed and were hesitant.
Cao Xiu said: “If the enemy truly wants to cut off our road, they should set ambushes and advance secretly. Now they first display their strength—this shows they cannot do it. We should take advantage of them not yet gathering and quickly attack Wu Lan. Once Wu Lan is defeated, Zhang Fei will retreat on his own.”
Cao Hong followed his advice, advanced troops to attack Wu Lan, and greatly defeated him. Zhang Fei indeed retreated.
Hanzhong Campaign
Cao Cao planned to campaign against Hanzhong but found it difficult to capture. He returned his army to Chang’an and appointed Cao Xiu as General Who Commands the Army.
Service under Cao Pi
In 220 CE, when Cao Pi became King of Wei, he appointed Cao Xiu as General Who Commands the Army. Calculating his previous and subsequent achievements, he enfeoffed Cao Xiu as Marquis of Dongyang Pavilion.
After Xiahou Dun died, Cao Pi appointed Cao Xiu as General Who Guards the South with Credentials and Commander of all military affairs, succeeding Xiahou Dun to station at Runan Commandery to resist Sun Quan.
Cao Pi’s carriage personally came to see Cao Xiu off and even got out of the carriage to hold Cao Xiu’s hand and bid farewell.
Sun Quan sent Wu generals to station at Liyang. After Cao Xiu took office, he broke through them and also sent troops to cross the river and burn several thousand Wu camps at Wuhu.
Cao Xiu was transferred to General Who Conquers the East and Inspector of Yang Province and enfeoffed as Marquis of Anyang Township.
Filial piety
According to the Wei Shu, Cao Xiu was extremely filial because his mother died. Cao Pi ordered a Palace Attendant to take away his mourning clothes and ordered him to drink wine and eat meat. However, after Cao Xiu received the edict, his body became increasingly emaciated.
Cao Xiu then requested to return to Qiao County to bury his mother. Cao Pi sent Xue Qiao, Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers, to announce an edict, ordering Cao Xiu to follow the edict and moderate his grief, allowing Cao Xiu to return home to handle the funeral. However, he forced Cao Xiu to stay only one night after arriving, and the next day he had to bury his mother. After completing the funeral, he had to immediately go to the place where the ruler was staying to pay respects and receive Cao Pi’s consolation.
Cao Pi’s love and regard for him can be seen from this.
Battle of Dongkou
In 222 CE, Cao Pi personally campaigned and enfeoffed Cao Xiu as Grand General Who Conquers the East with Yellow Axe, commanding Zhang Liao, Zang Ba, Jia Xu, and over twenty armies from various commanderies and counties to set out and attack Dongpu.
At the same time, Cao Zhen, Grand General of the Upper Army, attacked Jiangling, and Cao Ren attacked Ruxukou, dividing into three routes to attack Sun Quan.
Cao Xiu submitted a memorial saying: “Your servant’s elite troops can advance like tigers across the river. By seizing enemy supplies, we will certainly overcome the enemy’s attack. If your servant meets with misfortune, do not worry.”
Cao Pi did not allow this.
Sun Quan sent Lü Fan, Xu Sheng, and Quan Cong to meet the attack. At this time, a violent wind broke Lü Fan’s ship cables and blew Lü Fan’s forces to Cao Xiu’s camp. Cao Xiu took the opportunity to kill Wu soldiers and greatly defeated Lü Fan.
Cao Xiu sent Zang Ba to lead troops to pursue and attack the Wu reinforcements, captured Xuling, and killed several thousand Wu soldiers.
Wu generals Quan Cong and Xu Sheng led troops to counterattack with few soldiers, broke through the Wei army’s advantage, killed Wei general Yin Lu, and killed or captured several hundred Wei soldiers.
Zang Ba was counterattacked by Xu Sheng and Quan Cong and retreated. Except for Cao Xiu achieving initial victory, Cao Ren’s army was defeated, and Cao Zhen’s army temporarily had no results. Finally, Cao Pi had no choice but to withdraw the army.
Cao Xiu was appointed Inspector of Yang Province.
Regent
In 226 CE, Cao Pi died. Cao Xiu, together with Chen Qun, Cao Zhen, and Sima Yi, were four regents in the edict of entrustment to assist in government.
After Emperor Ming Cao Rui ascended the throne, Cao Xiu was enfeoffed as Marquis of Changping.
At this time, Shen De, a Wu general, was stationed at Wancheng. Cao Xiu led troops and killed Shen De and accepted the surrender of Han Zong, Zhai Dan, and others.
His fief was increased by four hundred households, totalling two thousand five hundred households. He was transferred to Grand Marshal, becoming the highest commander of Cao Wei’s army, and continued as Commander of Yang Province.
Battle of Shiting
In 228 CE, Cao Rui attacked Wu in two routes. Sima Yi went down the Han River, and Cao Xiu led troops to Xunyang.
Zhou Fang, a Wu minister, feigned surrender. Cao Xiu believed him and advanced deep, and the battle was unfavourable. He retreated to Shiting and was defeated by Lu Xun, a Wu general, losing tens of thousands.
The army was frightened at night, and the soldiers were in chaos, abandoning armour and supplies in great quantities. Finally, Jia Xu came to rescue, and Cao Xiu was able to escape danger.
Death
Because of this battle’s failure, Cao Xiu submitted a memorial apologising. Cao Rui sent Yang Ji, Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers, to comfort him, and the gifts were even more generous.
Cao Xiu was ashamed and resentful, and therefore an abscess broke out on his back. On the Gengzi day of the ninth month of 228 CE (8 November 228), Cao Xiu died.
He was posthumously titled Marquis Zhuang. His son Cao Zhao inherited the marquis title.
In 243 CE, Cao Xiu’s spirit tablet was moved to the Temple of Emperor Taizu (Cao Cao), and he was enshrined together with Cao Cao.
Personality
Cao Xiu was known for his filial piety. When his mother died, he was extremely filial, and even when Cao Pi ordered him to remove his mourning clothes and eat meat and drink wine, his body became increasingly emaciated.
He was described as “intelligent and resolute but rarely used troops” by Man Chong. However, at Shiting, he was eager to achieve merit and did not listen to Sun Li’s remonstrance, leading to his defeat.
He was proud and did not get along well with Jia Xu. Even after Jia Xu rescued him at Shiting, he complained that Jia Xu had arrived too late and ordered Jia Xu to pick up abandoned staffs, showing his arrogance.
Military achievements
Battle of Xiabian
Cao Xiu correctly identified that Zhang Fei’s threat to cut off the rear was a feint and advised attacking Wu Lan quickly. His advice led to victory, and Zhang Fei retreated as predicted.
Campaigns against Sun Quan
Cao Xiu achieved victories against Sun Quan’s forces, breaking through at Liyang and burning Wu camps at Wuhu.
Battle of Dongkou
Cao Xiu achieved initial victory at Dongkou, taking advantage of a storm that broke Lü Fan’s ship cables to attack and defeat the Wu forces. However, the overall campaign was not successful because the other two routes failed.
Campaigns in Yang Province
Cao Xiu successfully defended Yang Province and achieved victories against Wu forces, including killing Shen De and accepting the surrender of Han Zong and Zhai Dan.
Battle of Shiting
Cao Xiu’s defeat at Shiting was his greatest failure. He was deceived by Zhou Fang’s feigned surrender, advanced deep, and was defeated by Lu Xun, losing tens of thousands of troops. Only Jia Xu’s rescue prevented complete disaster.
Relationships
With Cao Cao
Cao Cao greatly valued Cao Xiu, calling him “our family’s thousand-li colt” and treating him like a son. Cao Xiu lived together with Cao Pi and was trusted with important responsibilities, including leading the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry.
With Cao Pi
Cao Pi greatly valued Cao Xiu, personally seeing him off when he took office and showing great concern when Cao Xiu’s mother died. He made Cao Xiu one of the four regents in his will.
With Cao Rui
Cao Rui continued to trust Cao Xiu, appointing him Grand Marshal and one of the four regents. After Cao Xiu’s defeat at Shiting, Cao Rui sent someone to comfort him and gave generous gifts.
With Jia Xu
Cao Xiu did not get along well with Jia Xu. During the Huangchu period, Cao Pi wanted to grant Jia Xu credentials, but Cao Xiu obstructed this, saying: “Jia Xu’s nature is rigid and urgent, and he has always looked down on the various generals. This kind of person cannot command a region.” Cao Pi then gave up the idea of greatly employing Jia Xu.
Later, at the Battle of Shiting, if Jia Xu had not come to rescue in time, Cao Xiu would certainly have been completely destroyed. Jia Xu did not hold a grudge and came to rescue with all his strength.
However, after Cao Xiu received the rescue, he complained that Jia Xu had arrived too late and rebuked Jia Xu on the spot, ordering Jia Xu, as Inspector of Yu Province, to pick up abandoned staffs in his capacity as Grand Marshal.
Jia Xu believed he had done nothing wrong and said to Cao Xiu: “I am serving the state as Inspector of Yu Province—I am not here to pick up abandoned staffs for the Grand Marshal.” He then led his army back alone.
Afterward, Jia Xu and Cao Xiu submitted memorials accusing each other. Although Cao Rui knew Jia Xu was upright, he still had to rely on Cao Xiu as an important clan minister, so he judged that both had done nothing wrong.
Cao Xiu continued to hold grudges about these matters, but Jia Xu did not argue with Cao Xiu again. Jia Xu was therefore greatly praised by people of the time.
Anecdotes
”Thousand-li colt”
When Cao Xiu returned to Cao Cao from Wu, Cao Cao said to those around him: “This is our family’s thousand-li colt.” This nickname became famous and reflected Cao Cao’s high regard for Cao Xiu’s potential.
Filial piety
When Cao Xiu’s mother died, he was extremely filial. Even when Cao Pi ordered him to remove his mourning clothes and eat meat and drink wine, his body became increasingly emaciated. Cao Pi had to send someone to comfort him and allow him to return home to handle the funeral.
The memorial before Dongkou
Before the Battle of Dongkou, Cao Xiu submitted a memorial saying: “Your servant’s elite troops can advance like tigers across the river. By seizing enemy supplies, we will certainly overcome the enemy’s attack. If your servant meets with misfortune, do not worry.” This showed his determination and willingness to risk his life, though Cao Pi did not allow the plan.
The rescue at Shiting
After Cao Xiu was defeated at Shiting, Jia Xu came to rescue him. However, Cao Xiu complained that Jia Xu had arrived too late and ordered him to pick up abandoned staffs, showing his inability to accept responsibility for his own mistakes.
Death from shame
After the defeat at Shiting, Cao Xiu submitted a memorial apologising. Cao Rui sent someone to comfort him and gave generous gifts. However, Cao Xiu was ashamed and resentful, and an abscess broke out on his back, leading to his death. This shows the psychological impact of military defeat.
Achievements
- Correctly identified Zhang Fei’s feint at Xiabian and achieved victory
- Achieved victories against Sun Quan’s forces
- Achieved initial victory at Battle of Dongkou
- Successfully defended Yang Province
- Achieved rank of Grand Marshal
- Served as one of four regents
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Cao Xiu’s biography appears in Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Xiahou Dun, Xiahou Yuan, Cao Ren, Cao Hong, Cao Zhen, and others. Chen Shou wrote: “The Xiahou and Cao families intermarried for generations, so Dun, Yuan, Ren, Hong, Xiu, Shang, Zhen, and others, as relatives and old friends, were valued in their time, assisting in achievements, all having effective service.”
The “thousand-li colt”
Cao Cao’s nickname for Cao Xiu, “thousand-li colt,” reflected his high regard for Cao Xiu’s potential. This nickname became famous and showed Cao Cao’s recognition of talent.
The regency
Cao Xiu was one of four regents appointed by Cao Pi to assist Cao Rui, along with Chen Qun, Cao Zhen, and Sima Yi. This shows the trust placed in him and his importance to the Cao Wei state.
The defeat at Shiting
Cao Xiu’s defeat at Shiting was a major setback. He was deceived by Zhou Fang’s feigned surrender and advanced deep, only to be defeated by Lu Xun. His death from shame shows the psychological impact of military failure.
The relationship with Jia Xu
Cao Xiu’s difficult relationship with Jia Xu, including his obstruction of Jia Xu’s promotion and his complaint after being rescued, shows his pride and inability to accept responsibility. However, Jia Xu’s willingness to rescue him despite their differences shows Jia Xu’s character.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Cao Cao said: “This is our family’s thousand-li colt.”
Zhu Huan said: “Cao Xiu was originally employed because of his relationship as a relative—he is not a wise and brave famous general.”
Man Chong said: “Cao Xiu, although intelligent and resolute, rarely used troops.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “The Xiahou and Cao families intermarried for generations, so Dun, Yuan, Ren, Hong, Xiu, Shang, Zhen, and others, as relatives and old friends, were valued in their time, assisting in achievements, all having effective service.”
Legacy
Cao Xiu is remembered as a general who showed great promise early in his career, earning Cao Cao’s nickname “thousand-li colt.” He achieved several victories, including at Xiabian and Dongkou, and rose to the rank of Grand Marshal.
However, he is also remembered for his defeat at Shiting, where he was deceived by Zhou Fang’s feigned surrender and advanced deep, only to be defeated by Lu Xun. His death from shame after this defeat shows the psychological impact of military failure.
His difficult relationship with Jia Xu, including his complaint after being rescued, shows his pride and inability to accept responsibility. However, his service as one of four regents shows the trust placed in him by Cao Pi and Cao Rui.
His story represents both the heights of achievement and the dangers of overconfidence—a general who showed great promise but fell victim to deception and died from shame.
Timeline
- c. 170s CE: Born in Qiao County, Pei Commandery
- c. 190 CE: Father died; fled to Wu with mother; taken in by Administrator of Wu Commandery
- 189 CE: Returned to Cao Cao; called “thousand-li colt”; lived with Cao Pi; led Tiger and Leopard Cavalry
- 217 CE: Appointed Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers; participated in Battle of Xiabian; correctly identified Zhang Fei’s feint; achieved victory
- 219 CE: Appointed General Who Commands the Army after Hanzhong Campaign
- 220 CE: Appointed General Who Commands the Army; enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongyang Pavilion; appointed General Who Guards the South; succeeded Xiahou Dun; broke through Wu forces at Liyang; burned Wu camps at Wuhu; transferred to General Who Conquers the East and Inspector of Yang Province; enfeoffed as Marquis of Anyang Township
- 222 CE: Battle of Dongkou; achieved initial victory; appointed Inspector of Yang Province; enfeoffed as Grand General Who Conquers the East with Yellow Axe
- 226 CE: Made one of four regents; enfeoffed as Marquis of Changping; killed Shen De; accepted surrender of Han Zong and Zhai Dan; appointed Grand Marshal
- 228 CE: Battle of Shiting; deceived by Zhou Fang; defeated by Lu Xun; rescued by Jia Xu; died of shame on 8 November; posthumously titled Marquis Zhuang
- 243 CE: Enshrined in Cao Cao’s temple
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 9, Biography of Cao Xiu.
- Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms.
- Yu Huan. Wei Lue.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, various volumes.