Biography
Early life
Sima Yan was born in 236 CE, the fourth year of Qinglong, in Luoyang. He was Sima Zhao’s eldest son and Sima Yi’s grandson.
During the Jiaping period (249–254 CE), Sima Yan was enfeoffed as Marquis of Beiping Pavilion and served as Gentleman Consultant, Cavalry Commandant, General of the Central Garrison, Regular Attendant, and Protector of the Army.
Early service
In 260 CE, the fifth year of Ganlu, when Cao Mao, Emperor of Wei, tried to seize power from the Sima family and was killed, Sima Zhao, Chancellor, sent Sima Yan, General Who Commands the Army and General of the Central Garrison, with credentials to welcome Cao Huan, Duke of Changdaoxiang, to succeed as the new emperor.
Afterward, Sima Yan was promoted to General Who Assists the Army and advanced to Marquis of Xinchang Township.
Becoming Crown Prince
Sima Yan was Sima Zhao’s eldest son and had the appearance of “hair reaching the ground and hands extending past the knees”—a sign of “non-minister appearance.”
However, his younger brother Sima You (adopted by Sima Shi) was “filial and friendly, talented and skilled” and was more beloved by Sima Zhao.
Sima Zhao once said that the realm was established by his elder brother Sima Shi, so the future throne should naturally belong to Sima You.
To seize the position of Crown Prince, Sima Yan worked hard to win over important ministers around his father, gaining the support of Shan Tao, Jia Chong, He Zeng, Pei Xiu, and others, and had Yang Xiu and others plan strategies for him.
Finally, in the tenth month of 264 CE, the first year of Xianxi, three months before Sima Zhao’s death, Sima Yan was formally established as Crown Prince of Jin.
Succeeding Sima Zhao
In the fifth month of 265 CE, the second year of Xianxi, Cao Huan advanced Sima Zhao to special honours, enfeoffed his consort as Queen, and made the Crown Prince the Heir Apparent. Sima Yan therefore became Crown Prince of Jin.
In the eighth month of the same year, Sima Zhao died, and Sima Yan inherited his father’s position as Chancellor and title as King of Jin, holding all military and government power in the realm.
Establishing the Jin dynasty
In the twelfth month of 265 CE, Cao Huan, under pressure from his ministers, agreed to abdicate the throne to the King of Jin.
On the seventeenth day of the twelfth month (8 February 266 CE), Sima Yan, after repeated urgings from the hundred officials, formally ascended the throne as emperor, changed the state name to Jin, and changed the era name to Taishi (the second year was Taishi 2).
The next day, Cao Huan, who had abdicated, was enfeoffed by Sima Yan as King of Chenliu, moved from Luoyang’s Jincheng to Ye, and Cao Wei perished.
Sima Yan was only thirty years old this year.
Early reforms
After Sima Yan became emperor, he summarised the lessons of previous dynasties’ destruction and believed that the Cao Wei government had restrained and guarded against the imperial clan, causing the emperor to be isolated and without support.
To protect the imperial family, Sima Yan continued to promote the five-rank system of nobility, enfeoffing many of his uncles, nephews, and brothers as kings.
At the beginning of his reign, he enfeoffed twenty-seven people as kings at once, and later continued to add more, totalling fifty-seven kings, and allowed the kings to select their own officials for their kingdoms.
Sima Yan also appointed several imperial princes to command heavy troops and garrison strategic locations such as Xuchang, Ye, and Chang’an to protect the capital Luoyang.
Conquest of Eastern Wu
After unifying the north, Sima Yan turned his attention to conquering Eastern Wu.
In 274 CE, the tenth year of Taishi, Lu Kang, Wu’s western front commander, died of illness, and Wu’s western defensive capabilities clearly declined.
Yang Hu began planning southern advance military deployments and battle plans.
In the tenth month of 276 CE, the second year of Xianning, Yang Hu submitted a memorial to Sima Yan requesting to attack Wu.
Yang Hu believed that the conditions for Jin to destroy Wu were far more mature than when they destroyed Shu, and as long as Sima Yan was willing to make a decision, pacifying Wu would not be a problem.
However, Yang Hu’s suggestion only received support from Du Yu, Director of the Central Secretariat, and Zhang Hua, Director of the Central Secretariat. The other court ministers had many different views, especially Jia Chong, Xun Xu, and Feng Dan, who firmly opposed attacking Wu.
They used the reason that the Qin-Liang disturbances had not yet been pacified to strongly obstruct the southern advance.
The campaign
In the eleventh month of 279 CE, the fifth year of Xianning, Sima Yan ordered Zhang Hua to serve as Director of the Central Secretariat, oversee the overall situation of destroying Wu, and manage grain transport.
At the same time, he issued an edict ordering two hundred thousand troops to be divided into six routes and launch a large-scale attack on Wu:
- Sima Zhou, General Who Guards the East, advanced from Tuzhong (present-day Chu River basin, Anhui)
- Wang Hun, General Who Pacifies the East, advanced from Jiangxi (present-day west of the Yangtze River in Anhui)
- Wang Rong, General Who Establishes Might, advanced from Wuchang
- Hu Fen, General Who Pacifies the South, advanced from Xiakou
- Du Yu, General Who Guards the South, advanced from Jiangling
- Wang Jun, General of the Dragon Soaring, and Tang Bin, Supervisor of the Army of Badong, led the Bashu navy and advanced downstream
The victory
At the beginning of 280 CE, the first year of Taikang, the Jin armies advancing south to destroy Wu were unstoppable.
Du Yu captured Jiangling and swept through Yuan, Xiang, Jiao, and Guang Provinces. Wang Hun crossed Hengjiang, and Hu Fen captured Jiang’an.
The navy led by Wang Jun broke through Wu’s Hengjiang iron chains and water surface iron cones, destroyed dangerous passes along the river, first joined with Hu Fen, Wang Rong, and other armies to capture Xiakou and Wuchang, then advanced eastward in a long drive, directly pointing at Wu’s capital Jianye (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu).
At the same time, Wang Hun’s main army also reached the north bank of the Yangtze.
All armies sent by Sun Hao were defeated by the Jin armies, and Zhang Ti, Chancellor, and others died in battle.
In the third month of this year, Wang Jun attacked Shitoucheng. Sun Hao had no plan and “bound his hands behind his back and carried a coffin” and surrendered to the Jin army.
At this point, Wu perished, the situation of Wu and Jin confronting each other after the Three Kingdoms ended, and the realm was reunified.
Taikang Prosperity
After pacifying Wu, Sima Yan, on the one hand, delineated provinces and counties throughout the realm and ordered provincial and commandery local governments to disband or reduce their subordinate armies.
On the other hand, he promulgated the system of land occupation and household tax throughout the realm.
After the realm was unified, society was stable, and the economy during the Taikang period still developed to some extent.
In 282 CE, the third year of Taikang, the total number of registered households in the state was three million seven hundred seventy thousand households, an increase of over one million households from the beginning of pacifying Wu.
This included both hidden and floating households that were searched out and a large amount of population growth.
This period is called “Taikang Prosperity” in history.
Later years
However, as the realm became stable, Sima Yan gradually “became lazy in government and indulged in feasting,” and his life became increasingly corrupt.
Under the emperor’s example of indulging in debauchery, his ministers also dared to act recklessly. He Zeng, Wang Ji, Wang Kai, Shi Chong, and others competed to display wealth as entertainment.
The luxury and debauchery of the Western Jin ruling class are famous in history.
Death
In 290 CE, the first year of Taixi, on the twentieth day of the fourth month (16 May 290 CE), Sima Yan died of illness in Hanzhang Hall, Luoyang, at the age of fifty-five.
He was buried at Junyangling (present-day Nancaizhuang Village North, Shouyangshan Town, Yanshi, Henan).
He was posthumously titled Emperor Wu, with the temple name Shizu.
After Sima Yan’s death, Crown Prince Sima Zhong succeeded to the throne as Emperor Hui of Jin.
However, less than a year later, Empress Jia Nanfeng launched a coup and killed Yang Jun.
Afterward, several imperial princes who held heavy troops became involved in struggles for supreme power, finally evolving into the extremely destructive “War of the Eight Princes.”
In 316 CE, the fourth year of Jianxing, Liu Cong, Emperor of Former Zhao, sent troops to attack and capture Chang’an and captured Sima Ye, the last emperor of Western Jin.
At this time, less than thirty years had passed since Sima Yan’s death.
Personality
Sima Yan was known for being “broad-minded and generous” and “gentle and tolerant.”
He was able to tolerate those who disagreed with him and did not persecute the abdicated Cao Wei imperial family or the surrendered Shu Han and Sun Wu imperial families.
He enfeoffed Cao Huan as King of Chenliu and Sun Hao as Marquis of Guiming and allowed the descendants of Liu Xie and Liu Shan to continue inheriting the titles of Duke of Shanyang and Duke of Anle.
He was also known for being tolerant of criticism. When Liu Yi, Inspector of Sili, criticised him for selling offices and said he was not even as good as Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling of Han, Sima Yan only laughed and did not punish him.
However, in his later years, Sima Yan became lazy in government and indulged in debauchery, leading to corruption and decline.
Military achievements
Conquest of Eastern Wu
Sima Yan’s greatest achievement was conquering Eastern Wu and unifying China.
He planned and executed the campaign, sending six routes of troops totalling two hundred thousand men and achieving victory, leading to the fall of Eastern Wu and the end of the Three Kingdoms period.
Suppressing rebellions
Sima Yan also suppressed various rebellions, including the rebellion of Tufa Shujineng in Liang Province and other border disturbances.
Relationships
With Sima Zhao
Sima Yan was Sima Zhao’s eldest son and succeeded him as King of Jin and later as emperor.
With Sima You
Sima Yan had a difficult relationship with Sima You, who was adopted by Sima Shi and was a potential rival for the throne.
Sima Yan eventually forced Sima You to leave the capital and go to his fiefdom, leading to Sima You’s death.
With Sima Zhong
Sima Yan’s relationship with Sima Zhong, his son and successor, was complicated.
Sima Zhong was mentally disabled, and many ministers advised Sima Yan to replace him, but Sima Yan refused and insisted on making Sima Zhong his successor.
Anecdotes
The chess game
Sima Yan was fond of playing chess and often played in the palace with Zhang Hua, Director of the Central Secretariat, and Wang Ji, Palace Attendant.
According to the Jin Shu, when Du Yu came to the palace with a memorial requesting to attack Wu, Sima Yan was playing chess with Zhang Hua.
Du Yu presented the memorial and explained the advantages and disadvantages, but Sima Yan still buried himself in the chess game and did not make a decision.
Zhang Hua, seeing this, stood up, cupped his hands, and said: “Your Majesty is wise and divine, the government is clear and has won the people’s hearts, the state is rich and the military is strong, and when orders are issued, none dare not obey. However, the Wu ruler is licentious and excessive and kills talented and capable people indiscriminately. Comparing the two, destroying Wu does not require much effort.”
Sima Yan immediately made a decision and set the plan to attack Wu.
Burning the pheasant-head fur
In the eleventh month of 278 CE, the fourth year of Xianning, Cheng Ju, Grand Physician, presented a “pheasant-head fur” (a fur coat woven from pheasant head feathers).
Sima Yan ordered this garment to be burned in front of the hall and announced throughout the realm that from now on, no one was allowed to contribute strange clothing made with special techniques.
The sheep cart
Sima Yan had many concubines in his harem. Especially after pacifying Wu, he accepted several thousand palace women from Sun Hao’s palace, bringing the number of concubines in the inner palace to nearly ten thousand.
Therefore, every night, which concubine to favour became a very headache-inducing problem for Sima Yan.
So he thought of a method: he would ride in a sheep cart and let the sheep walk randomly in the palace garden. Wherever the sheep cart stopped, he would favour the concubine there.
So a palace woman inserted bamboo branches on the door and sprinkled salt water on the ground. The sheep, because they liked the taste of salt water, stopped to lick it, so the sheep cart stopped at her palace gate.
”Why not eat meat porridge?”
Sima Yan’s son Sima Zhong was mentally disabled and once asked: “Why not eat meat porridge?” when told that the people had no food to eat.
This shows Sima Zhong’s inability to understand the suffering of the people.
Achievements
- Established the Jin dynasty
- Conquered Eastern Wu and unified China
- Ended the Three Kingdoms period
- Promulgated the Taishi Code
- Established the system of land occupation and household tax
- Achieved “Taikang Prosperity”
- Enfeoffed many imperial princes to protect the imperial family
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Sima Yan’s biography appears in the Jin Shu by Fang Xuanling, where he is recorded as Emperor Wu, with the temple name Shizu.
The Jin Shu records his achievements and his role in establishing the Jin dynasty and unifying China.
The conquest of Wu
Sima Yan’s conquest of Eastern Wu was a major achievement, ending the Three Kingdoms period and unifying China.
However, the campaign was not without controversy, as Wang Jun and Wang Hun argued over who deserved credit for the victory.
The succession issue
Sima Yan’s decision to make Sima Zhong his successor despite his mental disability was controversial and led to the War of the Eight Princes after his death.
Many ministers advised Sima Yan to replace Sima Zhong, but Sima Yan refused, believing that Sima Zhong’s son Sima Yu was intelligent and would be able to rule effectively.
The enfeoffment of princes
Sima Yan’s decision to enfeoff many imperial princes to protect the imperial family backfired, as these princes became powerful and eventually rebelled, leading to the War of the Eight Princes.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
He Zeng said: “The General Who Assists the Army is intelligent, divine, and martial, with talent that transcends the age. His hair reaches the ground, and his hands extend past his knees—this is not the appearance of a minister.”
Pei Xiu said: “The General Who Assists the Army has both popular support and such a heavenly appearance—he is certainly not the appearance of a minister.”
Later historians
Fang Xuanling wrote: “The Emperor was broad-minded and generous, and in haste he was always benevolent and tolerant. He accepted honest and upright advice and never lost his composure with people. He was clear and good at planning and could decide great matters. Therefore, he was able to pacify the myriad states and calm the four directions.”
Gan Bao wrote: “As for Shizu (Sima Yan), he then enjoyed the imperial throne. He was benevolent to treat those below him generously, frugal to be sufficient in use, harmonious but not relaxed, broad but able to decide. He covered the old territory of Tang and Yu and spread the calendar to the eight wastelands. At that time, there was the saying ‘there are no poor people in the realm.’ Although peace was not complete, it was enough to show that the people were happy with their lives.”
Li Shimin wrote: “Emperor Wu inherited the foundation, received the Mandate of Heaven, held the charts and ruled the realm, spread transformation and guided the people, using rest to replace labour, using order to replace chaos.”
Legacy
Sima Yan is remembered as the first emperor of the Jin dynasty and the unifier of China.
His conquest of Eastern Wu ended the Three Kingdoms period and unified China, making him one of the few emperors in Chinese history to achieve unification.
However, he is also remembered for his later years of corruption and debauchery, as well as his decision to make Sima Zhong his successor, which led to the War of the Eight Princes and the eventual fall of Western Jin.
His story represents both achievement and failure—an emperor who unified China but whose policies led to the dynasty’s rapid decline.
Timeline
- 236 CE: Born in Luoyang
- 249–254 CE: Enfeoffed as Marquis of Beiping Pavilion; served in various offices
- 260 CE: Welcomed Cao Huan to succeed as emperor; promoted to General Who Assists the Army; advanced to Marquis of Xinchang Township
- 264 CE: Established as Crown Prince of Jin
- 265 CE: Became Crown Prince of Jin; Sima Zhao died; succeeded as Chancellor and King of Jin
- 266 CE: Forced Cao Huan to abdicate; ascended the throne as emperor; established Jin dynasty; changed era name to Taishi
- 268 CE: Promulgated the Taishi Code
- 274 CE: Lu Kang died; Yang Hu began planning attack on Wu
- 276 CE: Yang Hu submitted memorial requesting to attack Wu
- 278 CE: Yang Hu died; Du Yu succeeded him; burned pheasant-head fur
- 279 CE: Decided to attack Wu; sent six routes of troops
- 280 CE: Conquered Eastern Wu; unified China; Sun Hao surrendered; era name changed to Taikang
- 282 CE: Registered households reached 3,770,000; “Taikang Prosperity”
- 283 CE: Forced Sima You to leave capital; Sima You died
- 290 CE: Died 16 May in Hanzhang Hall, Luoyang; age 55; posthumously titled Emperor Wu, temple name Shizu
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, various volumes.
- Fang Xuanling. Jin Shu, Volume 3, Annals of Emperor Wu.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, various volumes.