Zhang Fei (simplified: 张飞, traditional: 張飛, pinyin: Zhāng Fēi), courtesy name Yide (益德 Yìdé), was a general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. Born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (modern Zhuozhou, Hebei Province), he was renowned throughout his life as a ‘match for ten thousand’ (万人敌 wànrén dí) and became legendary for his fierce courage and martial prowess. Along with Guan Yu, he formed a sworn brotherhood with Liu Bei that became one of the most famous relationships in Chinese history. Known for his contrasting personality—treating scholars with respect while being harsh towards common soldiers—Zhang Fei served Liu Bei from their earliest days together until his assassination by subordinates in 221. He was posthumously honoured as Marquis Huan (桓侯 Huán Hóu) in 260.
Biography
Early life
Zhang Fei was born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (modern Zhuozhou, Hebei Province). His birth year is not recorded in historical sources, but he was known to be several years younger than Guan Yu. Little is recorded of his early years or family background, but he came from the same region as Liu Bei and Guan Yu.
In 184, when the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, Liu Bei organised a volunteer force in Zhuo County. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu both joined this force, and the three men formed a close bond. According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, they ‘slept in the same bed and were as close as brothers’ (寝则同床，恩若兄弟 qǐn zé tóngchuáng, ēn ruò xiōngdì). When Liu Bei attended social gatherings, Zhang Fei and Guan Yu would stand by his side all day, demonstrating their loyalty and respect.
Service under Liu Bei
When Liu Bei was appointed Chancellor of Pingyuan, he made Zhang Fei and Guan Yu Colonels of Separate Command (别部司马 Biébù Sīmǎ), each commanding their own units. The three men continued to serve together, sharing both victories and defeats.
In 194, when Liu Bei became Governor of Xu Province, he appointed Zhang Fei as Marshal (司马 Sīmǎ). However, this period was marked by conflict. In 196, when Liu Bei was fighting against Yuan Shu at Xuyi and Huaiyin, he left Zhang Fei to guard Xiapi. The Chancellor of Xiapi, Cao Bao, who was an old subordinate of Tao Qian, had a conflict with Zhang Fei. Cao Bao held his camp and sent someone to seek help from Lü Bu.
Lü Bu, who was then in the area, took advantage of this opportunity. He received a letter from Yuan Shu encouraging him to attack Xiapi, with promises of grain supplies. Lü Bu led his forces by both land and water. When he arrived at Xiapi, Xu Dan, one of Liu Bei’s generals, opened the gates and welcomed Lü Bu in. Lü Bu captured Xiapi, taking Liu Bei’s family and the families of his officers and soldiers.
Liu Bei, learning of this, returned to Xiapi but was defeated by Lü Bu’s forces. He and Zhang Fei gathered their scattered troops and headed east to Guangling, where they fought against Yuan Shu and were defeated again. Eventually, they were forced to submit to Lü Bu and were stationed at Xiaopei.
Service under Cao Cao
In 198, after Lü Bu was defeated and executed by Cao Cao, Zhang Fei was appointed General of the Household (中郎将 Zhōngláng Jiàng). However, this period of service under Cao Cao was brief.
In 200, when Liu Bei received the secret edict from Emperor Xian to eliminate Cao Cao, he led Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to kill the Inspector of Xu Province, Che Zhou, and seized control of the province. When Cao Cao attacked, Liu Bei was defeated, Guan Yu was captured, and Liu Bei and Zhang Fei fled to join Yuan Shao.
During this period, Zhang Fei encountered a young woman gathering firewood. She was the niece of Xiahou Yuan, a prominent general under Cao Cao. Zhang Fei, recognising that she was from a good family, took her as his wife. This marriage would later have significant political implications, as their daughters would become empresses of Liu Shan, creating a connection between the Liu and Xiahou families.
Battle of Changban
In 208, when Cao Cao led a great army south to attack Jing Province, Liu Biao’s son Liu Cong surrendered. Liu Bei fled south with over a hundred thousand followers. Cao Cao, learning that Liu Bei was heading for Jiangling, which had military supplies, led five thousand elite cavalry in pursuit, covering over three hundred li in a day and night.
Cao Cao caught up with Liu Bei at Changban in Dangyang. In the chaos, Liu Bei abandoned his family and fled with only several dozen horsemen, including Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, and Zhao Yun.
Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei with twenty horsemen to serve as rearguard. Zhang Fei positioned himself at a bridge over a river. He broke the bridge and, holding his spear horizontally, glared and shouted: ‘I am Zhang Yide! Come and fight to the death!’ (身是张益德也，可来共决死！ Shēn shì Zhāng Yìdé yě, kě lái gòng juésǐ!)
None of Cao Cao’s forces dared to approach. Liu Bei and the others were able to escape safely. This feat became one of the most famous episodes in Zhang Fei’s career and established his reputation as a warrior of exceptional courage.
Pacification of Jing Province
After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei began to establish his power base in southern Jing Province. Zhang Fei participated in the siege of Jiangling, where he was temporarily placed under Zhou Yu’s command. Liu Bei lent Zhang Fei with a thousand men to Zhou Yu, and in return received two thousand men to assist Guan Yu in cutting off Cao Ren’s northern route.
After the capture of the four southern commanderies, Liu Bei appointed Zhang Fei as General Who Conquers Bandits (征虏将军 Zhēnglǔ Jiāngjūn) and Administrator of Yidu (宜都太守 Yídū Tàishǒu), enfeoffing him as Marquis of Xinting (新亭侯 Xīntíng Hóu). However, Yidu was actually held by Eastern Wu, so Zhang Fei was likely stationed elsewhere. In 210, when Eastern Wu transferred Jiangling to Liu Bei, Zhang Fei was made Administrator of Nan Commandery (南郡太守 Nánjùn Tàishǒu).
Conquest of Yi Province
In 211, when Liu Bei entered Yi Province to assist Liu Zhang, he left Zhang Fei, along with Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, and Zhao Yun, to guard Jing Province. In 211, when Eastern Wu sent ships to fetch Lady Sun back, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun intercepted the fleet and recovered Liu Shan.
In 214, after Liu Bei broke with Liu Zhang and began the conquest of Yi Province, he summoned Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, and Zhao Yun to assist. Zhang Fei led his forces up the Yangtze River, pacifying commanderies and counties along the way.
When he reached Jiangzhou, the Administrator of Ba Commandery, Yan Yan, held the city and refused to surrender. Zhang Fei attacked and captured the city, taking Yan Yan prisoner. Zhang Fei angrily asked Yan Yan: ‘The great army has arrived. Why did you not surrender but dare to resist?’ Yan Yan replied: ‘You have acted without reason, invading and seizing our province. In our province, there are only generals who would have their heads cut off, not generals who would surrender!’
Zhang Fei was enraged and ordered his men to take Yan Yan away to be executed. Yan Yan’s expression did not change, and he said: ‘Cut off my head, then cut it off. Why are you angry?’ Zhang Fei, greatly impressed by Yan Yan’s courage, released him and treated him as an honoured guest.1
Zhang Fei continued his advance, defeating Zhang Yi at Deyang and pursuing him to Chengdu, where he joined forces with Liu Bei. After Liu Zhang surrendered and Yi Province was pacified, Liu Bei rewarded Zhang Fei with five hundred jin of gold, a thousand jin of silver, fifty million coins, and a thousand bolts of silk. He also appointed Zhang Fei as Administrator of Ba Commandery (巴西太守 Bāxī Tàishǒu).
Battle of Baxi
In 215, after Cao Cao captured Hanzhong from Zhang Lu, he left Xiahou Yuan to guard Hanzhong and sent Zhang He to invade Ba Commandery. Zhang He wanted to relocate the people of Ba Commandery to Hanzhong, advancing to Dangqu, Mengtou, and Dangshi counties.
Liu Bei, stationed at Jiangzhou, sent Zhang Fei from Langzhong to oppose Zhang He. The two armies faced each other for over fifty days. Zhang Fei then led over ten thousand elite troops along a different mountain path to attack Zhang He at Dangqu.
The mountain paths were narrow, and Zhang He’s forces could not support each other. Zhang Fei defeated Zhang He decisively. Zhang He abandoned his horse and climbed the mountain with only ten or so followers, escaping to Nanzheng. Ba Commandery was thus secured.2
Wudu campaign
In 218, Liu Bei launched the Hanzhong campaign. He sent Zhang Fei and Ma Chao to attack Wudu, with Wu Lan and Lei Tong advancing to Jushui, intending to attack Wudu and Yinping commanderies.
However, Cao Xiu, serving under Cao Hong, recognised that Zhang Fei’s threat to cut off their rear was a feint. He advised Cao Hong to attack Wu Lan immediately. Cao Hong followed this advice and defeated Wu Lan. Zhang Fei and Ma Chao withdrew to Hanzhong, and Wu Lan was killed by the Yinping Di chieftain Qiang Duan.
This was one of Zhang Fei’s few military defeats, demonstrating that even a warrior of his reputation could be outmanoeuvred by capable opponents.
Final years and death
In 219, after Liu Bei successfully captured Hanzhong and declared himself King of Hanzhong, he appointed Zhang Fei as General of the Right (右将军 Yòu Jiāngjūn) and granted him the authority of Bearer of the Imperial Staff (假节 Jiǎ Jié).
In 221, when Liu Bei declared himself Emperor of Shu Han, he promoted Zhang Fei to General of Chariots and Cavalry (车骑将军 Chēqí Jiāngjūn), the highest military rank below the rank of Grand General, and Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隶校尉 Sīlì Xiàowèi). He also enfeoffed Zhang Fei as Marquis of Xixiang (西乡侯 Xīxiāng Hóu), a county-level marquis in his hometown of Zhuo Commandery.
However, Zhang Fei’s personality flaws would prove fatal. The Records note that he ‘loved and respected gentlemen but did not show compassion to common men’ (爱敬君子而不恤小人 ài jìng jūnzǐ ér bù xù xiǎorén). Liu Bei often warned him: ‘You execute and punish too excessively, and you daily whip strong men, yet you keep them by your side. This is the way to invite disaster.’3
Zhang Fei did not reform his ways. In the sixth month of 221, when Liu Bei was preparing to launch the Yiling campaign to avenge Guan Yu, he ordered Zhang Fei to lead ten thousand men from Langzhong to Jiangzhou to join the main army. Before setting out, Zhang Fei’s subordinates Zhang Da and Fan Qiang, unable to bear his harsh treatment, assassinated him in his camp and took his head to Eastern Wu.
When Zhang Fei’s camp commander sent a report to Liu Bei, Liu Bei, upon seeing that it was from Zhang Fei’s camp commander, said: ‘Alas! Yide is dead.’4 He was deeply grieved by the loss of his sworn brother, coming so soon after Guan Yu’s death.
Personality and traits
Virtues and abilities
Zhang Fei was renowned throughout his life for his martial prowess. Contemporaries such as Cheng Yu, Guo Jia, and Fu Gan all described him as a ‘match for ten thousand’ (万人敌 wànrén dí), indicating widespread recognition of his exceptional combat abilities. His feat of holding the bridge at Changban with only twenty riders demonstrated both his courage and his ability to inspire fear in his enemies.
He was also known for his ability to recognise and respect talent. His release of Yan Yan after being impressed by the old general’s courage demonstrated that he was not merely a brute warrior but someone capable of appreciating virtue and courage in others.
Zhang Fei’s treatment of scholars also revealed a more refined side to his character. Unlike Guan Yu, who was arrogant towards scholars, Zhang Fei ‘loved and respected gentlemen’ (爱敬君子 ài jìng jūnzǐ). This contrast between the two sworn brothers is noted in the Records and suggests that Zhang Fei had greater appreciation for learning and culture than his reputation might suggest.
Temperament
However, Zhang Fei’s personality had a significant flaw that ultimately led to his death. The Records note that he ‘did not show compassion to common men’ (不恤小人 bù xù xiǎorén). He was known for harshly punishing his soldiers, often whipping them, yet he kept these same men close to him as personal attendants.
Liu Bei repeatedly warned Zhang Fei about this dangerous combination of harsh punishment and close proximity to those he had punished. However, Zhang Fei did not change his ways, and this ultimately led to his assassination by Zhang Da and Fan Qiang, two subordinates who could no longer bear his treatment.
Chen Shou’s evaluation captures this contradiction: ‘Fei was violent and without kindness’ (飞暴而无恩 fēi bào ér wú ēn). This flaw, combined with his failure to reform despite warnings, led to his premature death and contributed to the weakening of Shu Han’s military leadership.
Physical appearance
No specific physical description of Zhang Fei is recorded in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, though he is described as ‘majestic and fierce’ (雄壮威猛 xióngzhuàng wēiměng). Later literary and artistic traditions often depict him with a dark face, round eyes, and a fierce expression, but these are artistic conventions rather than historical descriptions.
Military achievements
Combat abilities
Zhang Fei’s martial prowess was legendary. His most famous single feat was holding the bridge at Changban with only twenty riders, facing down Cao Cao’s entire pursuing force through sheer force of personality and reputation. This demonstrated not only his personal courage but also the fear his name inspired among his enemies.
His ability to defeat Zhang He, one of Cao Wei’s most capable generals, in the Battle of Baxi demonstrated his tactical skills as well as his personal combat abilities. The victory came after a prolonged stalemate, showing Zhang Fei’s persistence and ability to find opportunities in difficult situations.
Command and strategy
As a commander, Zhang Fei demonstrated both strengths and weaknesses. His successful pacification of Ba Commandery during the conquest of Yi Province showed his ability to lead independent campaigns. His victory over Zhang He at Baxi demonstrated tactical awareness and the ability to exploit terrain advantages.
However, his defeat in the Wudu campaign showed that he could be outmanoeuvred by capable opponents. Cao Xiu’s recognition of his feint and the subsequent defeat of Wu Lan demonstrated that Zhang Fei’s reputation alone was not always sufficient to achieve victory.
Notable battles
Zhang Fei participated in numerous battles throughout his career. He fought in the suppression of the Yellow Turbans in 184 and served under Liu Bei in various campaigns. His most famous achievement was holding the bridge at Changban in 208, which saved Liu Bei’s life.
During the conquest of Yi Province, he captured Yan Yan and pacified Ba Commandery. His victory over Zhang He at Baxi in 215 secured the western border of Shu Han. However, his defeat in the Wudu campaign in 218 showed that even great warriors could be defeated by superior strategy.
Relationships
Family
Zhang Fei’s wife was Lady Xiahou, the niece of Xiahou Yuan, a prominent general under Cao Cao. She was captured by Zhang Fei in 200 while gathering firewood, when she was only thirteen or fourteen years old. Zhang Fei, recognising that she was from a good family, took her as his wife. This marriage created an interesting connection between the Liu and Xiahou families, as their daughters would later become empresses of Liu Shan.
Zhang Fei had two sons. Zhang Bao (张苞), the elder, died young but had a son, Zhang Zun (张遵), who served as Director of the Secretariat and died fighting against Deng Ai at Mianzhu in 263. Zhang Shao (张绍), the younger son, inherited the Xixiang marquis title and served as Palace Attendant (侍中 Shìzhōng) and Director of the Secretariat (尚书仆射 Shàngshū Púyè). He accompanied Liu Shan to Luoyang after the fall of Shu Han.
Zhang Fei had two daughters, both of whom became empresses of Liu Shan. The elder daughter, known posthumously as Empress Jing’ai (敬哀皇后 Jìng’āi Huánghòu), was made Crown Princess in 221 and became empress in 223. She died in 237. Her younger sister was made a noble lady in 237 and became empress in 238, serving until the fall of Shu Han in 263.
Lord and vassals
Zhang Fei’s relationship with Liu Bei was the defining relationship of his life. The two men, along with Guan Yu, formed a sworn brotherhood that became legendary. Zhang Fei served Liu Bei from their earliest days together, remaining loyal throughout his life.
His relationship with his subordinates was problematic. His harsh treatment of common soldiers, combined with keeping them close as personal attendants, created resentment that ultimately led to his assassination. This demonstrates the importance of maintaining good relationships with all levels of personnel, not just the elite.
Sworn brotherhood
Zhang Fei’s most famous relationship was the sworn brotherhood with Liu Bei and Guan Yu. Although the specific ceremony of the Oath of the Peach Garden (桃园结义 Táo Yuán Jiéyì) described in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms is likely fictional, the three men did form a close bond and served together throughout their careers.
Zhang Fei was the youngest of the three sworn brothers, with Liu Bei as the eldest and Guan Yu as the second. This bond was so strong that when Guan Yu was executed by Eastern Wu in 219, Liu Bei launched the Yiling campaign to avenge him, and Zhang Fei was preparing to join this campaign when he was assassinated.
Allies and rivals
Zhang Fei served alongside many of Shu Han’s most famous generals, including Guan Yu, Zhao Yun, Ma Chao, and Huang Zhong. He worked closely with Zhao Yun on several occasions, including the interception of Lady Sun’s attempt to take Liu Shan to Eastern Wu.
His relationship with Yan Yan, whom he captured and then released, demonstrated his ability to recognise and respect courage and virtue in others, even enemies. This incident became one of the most famous examples of chivalry in the Three Kingdoms period.
Anecdotes and allusions
Holding the Bridge by the Water
据水断桥 (Jù Shuǐ Duàn Qiáo)
At the Battle of Changban in 208, Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei with twenty horsemen to serve as rearguard while the main force fled. Zhang Fei positioned himself at a bridge over a river. He broke the bridge and, holding his spear horizontally, glared and shouted: ‘I am Zhang Yide! Come and fight to the death!’
None of Cao Cao’s forces dared to approach, despite their overwhelming numerical advantage. Liu Bei and the others were able to escape safely. This feat became one of the most famous episodes in Chinese military history, demonstrating how a single warrior’s reputation and courage could overcome numerical disadvantage.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Righteously Releasing Yan Yan
义释严颜 (Yì Shì Yán Yán)
During the conquest of Yi Province in 214, Zhang Fei captured Jiangzhou and took Yan Yan, the Administrator of Ba Commandery, prisoner. Zhang Fei angrily asked why Yan Yan had not surrendered. Yan Yan replied that there were only generals who would have their heads cut off, not generals who would surrender.
Zhang Fei ordered Yan Yan to be executed, but Yan Yan’s expression did not change, and he said: ‘Cut off my head, then cut it off. Why are you angry?’ Zhang Fei, greatly impressed by Yan Yan’s courage and integrity, released him and treated him as an honoured guest.
This incident became famous as an example of chivalry and the recognition of virtue. It also demonstrated that Zhang Fei was not merely a brute warrior but someone capable of appreciating courage and integrity in others.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Greatly Defeating Zhang He
大破张郃 (Dàpò Zhāng Hé)
In 215, Zhang He invaded Ba Commandery, intending to relocate its people to Hanzhong. Zhang Fei was sent to oppose him, and the two armies faced each other for over fifty days. Zhang Fei then led over ten thousand elite troops along a different mountain path to attack Zhang He at Dangqu.
The mountain paths were narrow, and Zhang He’s forces could not support each other. Zhang Fei defeated Zhang He decisively, forcing him to abandon his horse and escape with only ten or so followers. This victory secured Ba Commandery and demonstrated Zhang Fei’s tactical abilities as well as his personal combat skills.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms
Type: Historical
Showing Ritual to Ma Chao
礼示马超 (Lǐ Shì Mǎ Chāo)
According to Pei Songzhi’s annotations, when Ma Chao first joined Liu Bei’s forces, he was treated with great honour but sometimes addressed Liu Bei by his courtesy name, which was considered disrespectful. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, standing with weapons at Liu Bei’s side during a meeting, demonstrated the proper ritual relationship between lord and vassal.
Ma Chao, seeing this, understood the message and never again addressed Liu Bei by his courtesy name. However, Pei Songzhi questioned the reliability of this account, noting that Ma Chao, having accepted Liu Bei’s service, would not have been so disrespectful.
Source: Records of the Three Kingdoms (Pei annotation)
Type: Historical (disputed)
Achievements
Zhang Fei’s major accomplishments included:
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Military achievements: Held the bridge at Changban in 208 with only twenty riders, saving Liu Bei’s life; captured Yan Yan and pacified Ba Commandery during the conquest of Yi Province in 214; defeated Zhang He at Baxi in 215, securing the western border of Shu Han.
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Loyalty and service: Served Liu Bei from their earliest days together, remaining loyal throughout his life; formed one of history’s most famous sworn brotherhoods with Liu Bei and Guan Yu.
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Cultural legacy: Became a legendary figure in Chinese culture, representing fierce courage and martial prowess; his contrasting personality—respecting scholars while being harsh to common soldiers—has been the subject of much discussion and analysis.
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Zhang Fei is primarily documented in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志 Sānguózhì) by Chen Shou, in Book 36, the ‘Biography of Zhang Fei’ (张飞传 Zhāng Fēi Zhuàn), which is combined with the biographies of Guan Yu, Ma Chao, Huang Zhong, and Zhao Yun. Pei Songzhi’s annotations provide additional material from various sources.
The Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴 Zīzhì Tōngjiàn) by Sima Guang provides a chronological account that helps clarify the sequence of events, particularly regarding Zhang Fei’s various campaigns.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the fourteenth century, greatly embellished Zhang Fei’s story, adding numerous fictional episodes and characteristics that have become part of his popular image.
Historical vs literary portrayal
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms presents Zhang Fei as a fierce, impulsive warrior with a hot temper but also capable of cleverness and strategy. While these qualities were present in the historical Zhang Fei, the novel amplifies them and adds fictional episodes.
For example, the novel adds the famous episode of Zhang Fei challenging Lü Bu to single combat and various other dramatic confrontations. The novel also emphasises Zhang Fei’s hot temper and impulsiveness, sometimes to comic effect.
Historically, Zhang Fei was a capable general with significant personality flaws. His harsh treatment of common soldiers, despite his respect for scholars, created the conditions for his assassination. The literary portrayal tends to emphasise his courage and martial prowess while sometimes downplaying the severity of his flaws.
Scholarly debates
Modern scholars debate several aspects of Zhang Fei’s historical record. The interpretation of his personality—particularly the contrast between his respect for scholars and harsh treatment of common soldiers—has been the subject of analysis. Some scholars see this as evidence of class consciousness, while others view it as simply poor management.
The circumstances of his assassination are well-documented, but scholars debate whether Liu Bei’s warnings were sufficient and whether Zhang Fei’s death could have been prevented with better personnel management.
Personality analysis
Modern scholars recognise Zhang Fei as a complex figure who combined genuine martial ability with significant personality flaws. His respect for scholars and his ability to recognise virtue in others, as demonstrated by his release of Yan Yan, show a more refined side to his character than his reputation might suggest.
However, his harsh treatment of common soldiers and his failure to reform despite repeated warnings from Liu Bei demonstrate a significant blind spot in his character. This combination of respect for the elite and harshness towards the common people created resentment that ultimately led to his death.
Zhang Fei’s assassination by his own subordinates is particularly tragic because it came at a critical moment, just as he was preparing to join Liu Bei’s campaign to avenge Guan Yu. His death, coming so soon after Guan Yu’s execution, was a severe blow to Shu Han’s military leadership.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary assessments
Cheng Yu, one of Cao Cao’s advisors, described Zhang Fei as a ‘match for ten thousand’ (万人敌 wànrén dí), indicating widespread recognition of his martial prowess. Guo Jia, another of Cao Cao’s advisors, made a similar assessment, noting that Zhang Fei and Guan Yu ‘would die for’ Liu Bei.
Zhou Yu, the Eastern Wu general, described Zhang Fei and Guan Yu as ‘bear and tiger generals’ (熊虎之将 xióng hǔ zhī jiàng), indicating recognition of their ferocity and ability.
Chen Shou’s evaluation
Chen Shou, the compiler of the Records of the Three Kingdoms, provided a balanced evaluation of Zhang Fei:
‘Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were both called match for ten thousand, tiger ministers of the age. Yu repaid Cao Gong, Fei righteously released Yan Yan, both had the manner of state scholars. However, Yu was rigid and self-important, Fei violent and without kindness. Taking defeat through their weaknesses was the natural course.’5
This evaluation recognises both Zhang Fei’s strengths—his martial prowess, his ability to recognise virtue (as shown by releasing Yan Yan), and the manner of a state scholar—and his weaknesses—his violence and lack of kindness towards common people. Chen Shou’s assessment that these flaws led to his defeat has been borne out by historical analysis.
Pei Songzhi’s commentary
Pei Songzhi’s annotations provide additional perspectives on Zhang Fei’s character and actions. He includes material from various sources that supplement Chen Shou’s account, sometimes offering alternative interpretations of events.
For example, Pei Songzhi includes the account of Zhang Fei and Guan Yu showing proper ritual to Ma Chao, though he questions its reliability. These annotations help create a more complete picture of Zhang Fei’s personality and relationships.
Later dynasty evaluations
Throughout Chinese history, Zhang Fei has been generally evaluated positively for his martial prowess and loyalty, though his personality flaws are also noted. During the Tang dynasty, he was included in the temple of sixty-four famous generals, and during the Song dynasty, he was included in the temple of seventy-two famous generals.
However, his harsh treatment of subordinates and his assassination are often cited as examples of the importance of proper personnel management and the dangers of excessive harshness.
Modern scholarship
Contemporary scholars continue to debate various aspects of Zhang Fei’s life and character. The contrast between his respect for scholars and harsh treatment of common soldiers has been the subject of analysis, with some scholars seeing it as evidence of class consciousness in ancient China.
Modern assessments generally recognise Zhang Fei as a capable general with exceptional martial prowess and genuine loyalty, but also acknowledge that his personality flaws, particularly his harsh treatment of subordinates, contributed directly to his premature death. His assassination, coming at such a critical moment, was a significant loss for Shu Han.
Legacy
Cultural significance
Zhang Fei represents the ideal of fierce courage and martial prowess in Chinese culture. His reputation for being a ‘match for ten thousand’ and his legendary feat of holding the bridge at Changban have made him a cultural archetype of the brave warrior.
His relationship with Liu Bei and Guan Yu, the sworn brotherhood, has become one of the most famous stories in Chinese literature, symbolising loyalty, brotherhood, and shared commitment to a cause. This story has influenced countless works of literature, drama, and popular culture.
However, his death by assassination also serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of treating subordinates with respect and the dangers of excessive harshness, even for those in positions of power.
Symbolism and folklore
In Chinese folklore, Zhang Fei is often associated with the colour black and is sometimes depicted with a dark face and fierce expression. He represents the ideal of combining fierce courage with loyalty and righteousness.
The contrast between his respect for scholars and harsh treatment of common soldiers has been the subject of much discussion and has been used to illustrate the complexities of personality and the importance of treating all people with respect.
Idioms and sayings
The phrase ‘coarse on the outside, fine within’ (粗中有细 cū zhōng yǒu xì) is sometimes associated with Zhang Fei, though this is more of a later evaluation than a direct idiom from his stories. It refers to the idea that despite his rough exterior and fierce reputation, Zhang Fei was capable of recognising virtue and showing respect to those who deserved it.
Memorial sites
Zhang Huanhou Shrine (Langzhong)
The Zhang Huanhou Shrine (张桓侯祠 Zhāng Huánhóu Cí) in Langzhong, Sichuan Province, is where Zhang Fei’s body is buried. The shrine was established during the Shu Han period and has been maintained and renovated throughout history.
The complex includes the tomb, temple halls, and various monuments. It is now a National Cultural Heritage Site and serves as both a historical monument and an active site of cultural and religious significance. The shrine reflects Zhang Fei’s enduring cultural significance and the reverence with which he is regarded in the region where he served.
Zhang Huanhou Temple (Yunyang)
The Zhang Huanhou Temple (张桓侯庙 Zhāng Huánhóu Miào) in Yunyang, Chongqing, is where Zhang Fei’s head is buried. According to tradition, Zhang Da and Fan Qiang took Zhang Fei’s head to Eastern Wu, and it was eventually buried in Yunyang.
The temple was established during the Shu Han period and has been maintained and renovated throughout history. It is also a National Cultural Heritage Site and attracts visitors interested in Zhang Fei’s legacy. The separation of Zhang Fei’s head and body has created the saying that his ‘head rests in Yunyang, body lies in Langzhong’ (头在云阳，身在阆中 tóu zài Yúnyáng, shēn zài Lángzhōng).
Artistic portrayals
Literature
Beyond the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhang Fei appears in numerous literary works throughout Chinese history. His image as a fierce warrior and his relationship with Liu Bei and Guan Yu have made him a popular subject for poetry, drama, and other forms of literature.
Pingshu and storytelling
In traditional Chinese storytelling (评书 píngshū), Zhang Fei is a central figure in many famous episodes. Storytellers emphasise his fierce courage, his loyalty, and his sometimes humorous interactions with others. Famous episodes include ‘Holding the Bridge by the Water’, ‘Righteously Releasing Yan Yan’, and ‘Greatly Defeating Zhang He’.
Traditional opera and drama
In Chinese opera, Zhang Fei typically appears as a 架子花脸 (jiàzi huāliǎn, framework painted-face role), reflecting his fierce and imposing character. Notable plays featuring Zhang Fei include ‘Changban Slope’ (长坂坡), ‘Righteously Releasing Yan Yan’ (义释严颜), and ‘Fighting Ma Chao’ (战马超).
Television
| Year | Title | Actor | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1994 | Romance of the Three Kingdoms | Li Jingfei | Classic 84-episode adaptation |
| 2010 | Three Kingdoms | Kang Kai | 95-episode adaptation |
Film
| Year | Title | Actor | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2008 | Red Cliff | Zang Jinsheng | Focus on Battle of Red Cliffs |
Video games
Zhang Fei appears as a playable character in numerous video games based on the Three Kingdoms period, including the Dynasty Warriors series, Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy games, and Total War: Three Kingdoms. In these games, he is typically portrayed with high combat stats and is often associated with the colour black and a fierce, aggressive fighting style.
Timeline
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| Unknown | Born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery |
| 184 | Joined Liu Bei’s forces; participated in suppression of Yellow Turbans |
| 191 | Appointed Colonel of Separate Command under Liu Bei |
| 196 | Lost Xiapi to Lü Bu due to conflict with Cao Bao |
| 198 | Appointed General of the Household after Lü Bu’s defeat |
| 200 | Married Lady Xiahou (Xiahou Yuan’s niece); fled with Liu Bei to Yuan Shao |
| 208 | Held bridge at Changban, saving Liu Bei; participated in Battle of Red Cliffs |
| 209 | Appointed General Who Conquers Bandits and Administrator of Yidu; enfeoffed as Marquis of Xinting |
| 210 | Made Administrator of Nan Commandery |
| 211 | Intercepted Lady Sun with Zhao Yun, recovered Liu Shan |
| 214 | Conquered Yi Province; captured and released Yan Yan; appointed Administrator of Ba Commandery |
| 215 | Defeated Zhang He at Baxi |
| 218 | Defeated in Wudu campaign |
| 219 | Appointed General of the Right and Bearer of the Imperial Staff |
| 221 | Promoted to General of Chariots and Cavalry and Colonel-Director of Retainers; enfeoffed as Marquis of Xixiang; assassinated by Zhang Da and Fan Qiang |
See also
External links
References
Footnotes
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Yan Yan (simplified: 严颜, traditional: 嚴顏, pinyin: Yán Yán). Administrator of Ba Commandery who was captured by Zhang Fei but released after demonstrating great courage and integrity. ↩
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Zhang He (simplified: 张郃, traditional: 張郃, pinyin: Zhāng Hé). Cao Wei general who was defeated by Zhang Fei at Baxi in 215, one of Zhang Fei’s greatest military victories. ↩
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Liu Bei’s Warning (simplified: 刘备警告, traditional: 劉備警告, pinyin: Liú Bèi Jǐnggào). Liu Bei’s repeated warnings to Zhang Fei about his harsh treatment of subordinates, which Zhang Fei failed to heed. ↩
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Zhang Fei’s Death (simplified: 张飞之死, traditional: 張飛之死, pinyin: Zhāng Fēi Zhī Sǐ). Liu Bei’s immediate recognition that Zhang Fei was dead upon seeing a report from his camp commander, demonstrating his understanding of the situation. ↩
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Chen Shou’s Evaluation (simplified: 陈寿评价, traditional: 陳壽評價, pinyin: Chén Shòu Píngjià). The historian’s assessment of Zhang Fei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, recognising both his strengths and weaknesses. ↩