Biography
Early life
Zhang Zhao was born in 156 CE, the second year of Yongshou, in Pengcheng, Xu Province (present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu).
When Zhang Zhao was young, he was already famous for his extensive learning and was deeply respected by local scholars.
He was skilled in clerical script and had special insights into studying the Book of Han.
He studied the Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals under Bai Hou Zian and was famous together with Zhao Yu of Langya and Wang Lang of Donghai, and they were also friendly with each other.
Refusing office
After Zhang Zhao reached adulthood, he was recommended as a man of filial piety and incorruptibility, but he declined and did not accept.
Chen Lin, a famous scholar from Xu Province, greatly admired him.
Tao Qian, Inspector of Xu Province, heard of his reputation and recommended him as a man of outstanding ability, but Zhang Zhao refused.
Tao Qian believed that Zhang Zhao looked down on him and therefore imprisoned Zhang Zhao.
Later, he was released after Zhao Yu interceded for him.
Later, after Tao Qian died of illness, Zhang Zhao still wrote a eulogy for Tao Qian.
Service under Sun Ce
Later, Zhang Zhao fled to Jiangdong with other refugees because of warfare.
Because Sun Ce personally visited his door and treated scholars with respect, Zhang Zhao decided to enter service.
He was appointed Chief Clerk and General Who Assists the Army.
Almost all internal affairs of Sun Ce’s army were handled by Zhang Zhao, and he made great contributions to Sun Ce’s management of Jiangdong.
The praise from the north
Because of this, he was deeply respected by northern scholar-officials, and in their letters, there were many words praising Zhang Zhao.
A famous scholar friend of Zhang Zhao even said directly in a letter that the Sun family’s establishment and rule in Jiangdong were all Zhang Zhao’s achievements alone.
However, this praise was too excessive, as if it did not put Sun Ce in the eyes at all.
Zhang Zhao felt worried and afraid. Since ancient times, those whose achievements overshadowed their lord did not have good outcomes.
If this spread, it would anger Sun Ce, and Zhang Zhao felt very troubled.
When Sun Ce learned of this, he said generously: “Previously, when Guan Zhong served as Chancellor of Qi, the people of Qi honoured him as ‘Zhongfu,’ and Duke Huan of Qi also achieved hegemony because of Guan Zhong’s talent. Now Zibu is virtuous and capable, and I employ him. Just this point—is it not my achievement?”
After saying this, Sun Ce laughed heartily.
Sun Ce’s generous breadth of mind resolved Zhang Zhao’s awkward situation of having achievements that overshadowed his lord, and it also made Zhang Zhao willingly and wholeheartedly serve Sun Ce after this matter.
Sun Ce’s death and Sun Quan’s succession
In 200 CE, the fifth year of Jian’an, when Sun Ce was assassinated, Sun Yi, Sun Ce’s third brother, was also brave and fierce like Sun Ce.
Zhang Zhao and the ministers also suggested that Sun Ce order Sun Yi to inherit military power.
However, Sun Ce favoured his second brother Sun Quan and entrusted Sun Quan to Zhang Zhao, saying: “If Zhongmou (Sun Quan) is not capable, then please, sir, choose another brother to establish. If our army ultimately cannot stand firm in this chaotic age, we can also calmly surrender to the most powerful force at that time to the west. There is no need to worry.”
After Sun Ce died, the situation in Jiangdong was very critical, with internal worries and external threats.
To maintain the Sun family’s rule, Zhang Zhao immediately submitted a memorial to the court and sent documents to the various subordinate counties.
For Jiangdong’s internal and external generals and officers, he ordered them to each guard their duties.
At that time, Sun Quan was very sad, and Zhang Zhao advised Sun Quan: “As a successor, what is important is to be able to inherit the foundation of one’s father and elder brother, to make the Sun family’s foundation prosperous and flourishing, and to establish great achievements. Now the realm is in turmoil, and bandits occupy the mountains and rise up. How can you, Xiaolian (Sun Quan), lie in bed and grieve, releasing personal feelings like an ordinary person?”
He personally helped Sun Quan mount his horse, deployed troops, and went out, and then everyone submitted to Sun Quan.
Stabilizing Jiangdong
When Sun Quan first took control of Jiangdong, because the foundation was not yet stable, some who were not convinced joined together and plotted rebellion.
Zhang Zhao assisted Sun Quan in pacifying the people, and local officials and travellers also gained important positions and were pacified.
Whenever Sun Quan campaigned, he left Zhang Zhao to guard the rear and oversee the affairs of the office.
Later, when remnants of the Yellow Turban Army rose up, Zhang Zhao led troops and pacified them.
When Sun Quan campaigned against Hefei, he ordered Zhang Zhao to separately lead troops and attack Kuangqi.
He also ordered Zhang Zhao to supervise the various generals and defeat Zhou Feng, the “bandit” commander of Yuzhang, and others at Nancheng.
After this, Zhang Zhao rarely led troops and often served as a strategist at Sun Quan’s side.
Opposing campaigns
Zhang Zhao was strict toward his colleagues and ruler but was quite weak toward external enemies and often opposed raising troops to campaign, and because of this, he made many strategic mistakes.
Zhuge Ke, Gan Ning, and Lu Su were all criticized or looked down upon by Zhang Zhao.
In 207 CE, the twelfth year of Jian’an, because of Zhou Yu and Lü Meng’s recommendations, Sun Quan greatly valued Gan Ning and treated him like the original old ministers.
Gan Ning was happy and immediately presented a plan to Sun Quan: “Now the Han dynasty’s fortune is daily declining, and Cao Cao is even more arrogant and arbitrary. He will ultimately become a state thief who usurps the Han. Jing Province—this place has convenient mountain barriers and smooth rivers. This is our Eastern Wu’s western barrier! I served under Liu Biao. From my observation, Liu Biao has no deep plans or far-sighted considerations, and his two sons Liu Qi and Liu Cong are not harmonious. They cannot guard Jingchu. General, you should strike first and cannot fall behind Cao Cao. The plan to attack Liu Biao—the first step is to start with Huang Zu. Huang Zu is now old, confused, and incompetent. Military supplies and grain are all lacking, and those around him deceive and mislead him. He only covets wealth and deducts and demands from subordinate officials and soldiers. These people all harbour resentment, and warships and various combat equipment are damaged and not repaired. Agriculture is neglected, and the army lacks trained troops. If General advances now, you will certainly defeat him. Once Huang Zu’s army is defeated, you can beat drums and advance west, occupy Chuguan, and the military situation will increase and expand. In this way, you can gradually plan to take Bashu.”
Gan Ning’s opinion unexpectedly coincided with Lu Su’s previously proposed “Strategy on the Couch.”
Sun Quan greatly appreciated this opinion and became even more determined to use troops.
At that time, Zhang Zhao was present and did not approve of Gan Ning’s opinion.
He said: “Jiangdong itself is in danger. If the army really campaigns west, I am afraid it will certainly cause internal chaos.”
Gan Ning unceremoniously retorted: “The state has entrusted you with a heavy responsibility like Xiao He, but you guard the rear and worry about chaos. How can you emulate the ancients?”
When Sun Quan saw the two arguing, he raised his cup and toasted Gan Ning, saying: “Xingba, this year we will campaign west, like this cup of wine. I have decided to entrust it to you. You should do your best to propose battle strategies so that we can certainly defeat Huang Zu. This will be your great achievement. Why worry about Chief Clerk Zhang Zhao’s words?”
Opposing Sun Quan’s drinking
Zhang Zhao had a high position and great power and was proud by nature.
He often directly criticized Sun Quan to his face without regard for Sun Quan’s face.
Once, Sun Quan set up a banquet and wanted the ministers to return only when they were very drunk.
When Zhang Zhao heard of this, he was very angry and immediately left the banquet.
Sun Quan stopped him and said: “Everyone is enjoying themselves together. Why are you, sir, angry?”
Zhang Zhao immediately replied: “Previously, King Zhou of Shang had a wine pool and meat forest and feasted wildly. He also believed this was a good thing and not a bad thing.”
Sun Quan was deeply ashamed, but the joyful banquet was also disrupted by him, and everyone left disappointed.
Many people believed that Zhang Zhao’s action was making a mountain out of a molehill and being self-righteous.
Because Zhang Zhao often criticized Sun Quan regardless of the occasion, Sun Quan also had grievances against him, and his self-righteous personality also made other important ministers have no good feelings toward him.
Advocating surrender to Cao Cao
In 208 CE, the thirteenth year of Jian’an, when Cao Cao’s main army pressed the border, on the eve of the Battle of Chibi, Cao Cao wrote a letter to Sun Quan.
Sun Quan showed the letter to his ministers, and everyone was shocked and lost colour.
Zhang Zhao and others said: “Cao Cao is a wolf, tiger, and leopard. He holds the Son of Heaven hostage to campaign in all directions and often uses the court’s name to issue orders. Today, if we resist, it will appear even more that our name is not correct and our words are not proper. Moreover, what General can use to resist Cao Cao is relying on the natural barrier of the Yangtze River. Now Cao Cao occupies the land of Jing Province. The navy that Liu Biao trained, including thousands of mengchong warships, are all taken over by Cao Cao. Cao Cao’s ships all go down along the Yangtze River, and in addition, there are infantry. They advance by water and land together. In this way, the natural barrier of the Yangtze River is already shared by Cao Cao and us, and the numbers of the two sides’ forces cannot be compared. Therefore, according to our foolish opinion, it is best to welcome Cao Cao and surrender to the court.”
However, under the persuasion of the pro-war faction, including Zhou Yu, Cheng Pu, and Lu Su, Sun Quan allied with Liu Bei and instead repelled Cao Cao’s main army.
Zhang Zhao’s several cowardly miscalculations also caused his political position to greatly decline, and he lost Sun Quan’s trust.
In addition, his unrestrained words and overly proud personality affected his later career.
Campaign against Dangtu
In the twelfth month of the same year, Sun Quan personally led troops and surrounded Hefei and sent Zhang Zhao to lead troops and attack Dangtu County, which belonged to Jiujiang Commandery, but he was unable to capture it.
Remonstrating against tiger hunting
In 209 CE, the fourteenth year of Jian’an, Liu Bei submitted a memorial appointing Sun Quan as General of Chariots and Cavalry and concurrently Inspector of Xu Province, and Zhang Zhao served as Army Advisor.
Sun Quan often went hunting and frequently rode horses and shot tigers.
Tigers often pounced forward onto the saddle.
Zhang Zhao therefore changed expression and came forward and said: “What do you use to resist it? A ruler should be able to control heroes and drive the various worthies. How can you gallop across the plains and be brave with fierce beasts? If there is a mistake, are you not afraid of being laughed at by the realm?”
Sun Quan apologized to Zhang Zhao: “When I was young, I did not consider things far ahead. This matter is shameful to you.”
However, he still could not control himself, so he made a tiger-shooting carriage.
The carriage had no cover, and one person drove it, and Sun Quan shot beasts from inside.
At that time, there were beasts that left the group and pounced on his carriage, but Sun Quan often personally fought them and took this as pleasure.
Although Zhang Zhao repeatedly remonstrated, Sun Quan often laughed and did not answer.
Opposing the appointment as Chancellor
After Sun Quan was enfeoffed as King of Wu by Cao Pi, he established the position of Chancellor.
Many people nominated Zhang Zhao to serve, but Sun Quan declined, saying: “At present, there are many affairs, and the position of Chancellor has heavy responsibilities. It is not good to trouble him, sir.”
Sun Quan appointed Sun Shao, who was mediocre, as Chancellor.
After Sun Shao died, people again proposed to have Zhang Zhao serve as Chancellor.
Sun Quan then stated the real reason: “Do you think I like Zibu? Moreover, serving as Chancellor requires the ability to harmonize the opinions of the various ministers with a flexible personality. Zhang Zhao’s personality is too rigid and strong. If his opinions are not adopted, he will complain and throw a tantrum. In the past, he also often had disputes with other colleagues. Serving as Chancellor is not a good thing for him.”
He therefore appointed Gu Yong as Chancellor.
Later years
In 229 CE, the first year of Huanglong, after Sun Quan became emperor, Zhang Zhao claimed old age and retired.
He was additionally appointed General Who Assists Wu, with a rank below the Three Excellencies, changed his fief to Marquis of Lou, with a fief of ten thousand households, and retired to write annotations on the Analects and Zuo Commentary.
The incident with Gongsun Yuan
In 232 CE, the first year of Jiahe, Gongsun Yuan, Administrator of Liaodong, rebelled against Wei in Liaodong and submitted to Sun Wu as an external ally.
Zhang Zhao remonstrated: “Gongsun Yuan rebelled against Wei and feared its attack, so he came from afar to seek aid. This is not his true intention. If Gongsun Yuan changes his intention and wants to show Wei that he rejects Wu and welcomes Wei, then the envoys will not be able to return. Will this not make the realm laugh at us?”
Sun Quan argued with him repeatedly, and Zhang Zhao’s remonstrance became increasingly fierce.
Sun Quan could not bear it anymore, drew his blade, and said angrily: “The scholars of Wu enter the palace and bow to me, and when they leave the palace, they bow to you, sir. My respect for you, sir, has reached the extreme. However, you have countless times publicly humiliated me in front of everyone. I am afraid I will lose control and harm you, sir.”
Zhang Zhao looked at Sun Quan sincerely for a long time and then said: “Although I know my words will not be followed, the reason I want to exhaust my loyalty every time is because when the Huan King (Sun Ce) and the Empress Dowager were on their deathbeds, they called me, an old minister, to the bedside. The words of the deathbed edict are still in my ears!”
After saying this, he wept profusely.
Sun Quan also threw his blade to the ground and embraced Zhang Zhao and wept together.
The sealed door
However, Sun Quan still insisted on sending envoys to Liaodong.
Zhang Zhao was angry that his loyal words were not adopted and therefore retired and did not attend court.
Sun Quan, in great anger, ordered earth to be used to seal Zhang Zhao’s door to show that he never needed to go out.
Zhang Zhao also used earth from inside to seal the door to show that he also never planned to go out.
As a result, Gongsun Yuan betrayed Sun Wu and killed Zhang Mi, Minister over the Masses, Xu Yan, Bearer of the Gilded Mace, and He Da, General, whom Sun Quan had sent to Liaodong.
At this time, Sun Quan regretted not listening to Zhang Zhao’s loyal words.
He sent people many times to invite Zhang Zhao to court, but Zhang Zhao did not come.
However, Sun Quan was unwilling to lower his head and apologize to Zhang Zhao.
He therefore ordered Zhang Zhao’s door to be burned with fire to force him to come out.
However, this method also did not frighten Zhang Zhao, so Sun Quan had to order the fire to be extinguished.
Finally, Sun Quan stood for a long time outside Zhang Zhao’s door and did not leave.
Zhang Zhao, supported by his sons Zhang Cheng and Zhang Xiu, came out, and Sun Quan used a carriage to take them back to the palace and deeply reflected on his mistakes.
Zhang Zhao had no choice and then attended court.
Death
Zhang Zhao lived to be eighty-one years old.
His funeral was simple, and when he was put in the coffin, he was not even changed into new clothes.
Sun Quan wore mourning clothes and personally went to mourn him.
He posthumously titled Zhang Zhao Marquis Wen.
Zhang Zhao’s eldest son Zhang Cheng had already been enfeoffed as a marquis, and his second son Zhang Xiu inherited Zhang Zhao’s marquis title.
Personality
Zhang Zhao was known for being strict, upright, and direct in remonstrance.
He dared to speak his mind and often criticized Sun Quan directly, regardless of the occasion.
He was also known for being weak toward external enemies and often opposed campaigns, which led to strategic mistakes.
However, he was also known for his loyalty to the Sun family and his dedication to their cause.
Military achievements
Pacifying rebellions
Zhang Zhao led troops and pacified remnants of the Yellow Turban Army and defeated bandit commanders such as Zhou Feng.
Campaign against Dangtu
Zhang Zhao led troops and attacked Dangtu County but was unable to capture it.
Relationships
With Sun Ce
Zhang Zhao had a close relationship with Sun Ce, who greatly trusted him and entrusted him with all internal affairs.
Sun Ce’s generous response to the praise from the north showed his trust in Zhang Zhao.
With Sun Quan
Zhang Zhao had a difficult relationship with Sun Quan.
Although Sun Quan respected Zhang Zhao and called him “Zhang Gong,” Zhang Zhao’s strict remonstrance and opposition to campaigns caused Sun Quan to lose trust in him.
Sun Quan never made Zhang Zhao Chancellor, believing that his personality was too rigid.
With Zhou Yu
Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu worked together to stabilize Jiangdong after Sun Ce’s death, with Zhang Zhao handling internal affairs and Zhou Yu handling military affairs.
Anecdotes
The praise from the north
When northern scholar-officials praised Zhang Zhao excessively in their letters, Zhang Zhao was worried that Sun Ce would be angry.
However, Sun Ce generously said: “Previously, when Guan Zhong served as Chancellor of Qi, the people of Qi honoured him as ‘Zhongfu,’ and Duke Huan of Qi also achieved hegemony because of Guan Zhong’s talent. Now Zibu is virtuous and capable, and I employ him. Just this point—is it not my achievement?”
This shows Sun Ce’s generosity and Zhang Zhao’s loyalty.
Opposing the drinking banquet
When Sun Quan wanted the ministers to return only when they were very drunk, Zhang Zhao was angry and left, saying: “Previously, King Zhou of Shang had a wine pool and meat forest and feasted wildly. He also believed this was a good thing and not a bad thing.”
This shows Zhang Zhao’s strictness and his willingness to remonstrate directly.
Advocating surrender to Cao Cao
At the Battle of Chibi, Zhang Zhao advocated surrendering to Cao Cao, saying that Wu could not resist Cao Cao’s forces.
However, Sun Quan followed Zhou Yu and Lu Su’s advice and allied with Liu Bei, achieving victory.
This mistake caused Zhang Zhao’s political position to decline.
The sealed door
When Sun Quan did not listen to Zhang Zhao’s advice about Gongsun Yuan, Zhang Zhao retired and did not attend court.
Sun Quan sealed Zhang Zhao’s door with earth, and Zhang Zhao also sealed it from inside.
After Gongsun Yuan betrayed Sun Wu, Sun Quan regretted not listening to Zhang Zhao and had to personally go to Zhang Zhao’s door to invite him back.
This shows Zhang Zhao’s stubbornness and Sun Quan’s respect for him.
Achievements
- Assisted Sun Ce in establishing Jiangdong
- Stabilized Jiangdong after Sun Ce’s death
- Assisted Sun Quan in pacifying the people
- One of the Two Zhangs of Jiangdong
- Wrote annotations on the Analects and Zuo Commentary
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Zhang Zhao’s biography appears in the Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Gu Yong, Zhuge Jin, and Bu Zhi.
The biography records his achievements and his difficult relationship with Sun Quan.
The Two Zhangs
Zhang Zhao was one of the “Two Zhangs” (二张) of Jiangdong, along with Zhang Hong.
Both were from Xu Province and served under Sun Ce.
Never becoming Chancellor
Despite his high position and achievements, Zhang Zhao was never made Chancellor.
Sun Quan believed that his personality was too rigid and that he would complain if his opinions were not adopted.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Sun Ce said: “Previously, when Guan Zhong served as Chancellor of Qi, the people of Qi honoured him as ‘Zhongfu,’ and Duke Huan of Qi also achieved hegemony because of Guan Zhong’s talent. Now Zibu is virtuous and capable, and I employ him. Just this point—is it not my achievement?”
Sun Quan said: “When I speak with Zhang Gong, I do not dare to speak recklessly.”
Sun Quan also said: “The scholars of Wu enter the palace and bow to me, and when they leave the palace, they bow to you, sir. My respect for you, sir, has reached the extreme.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “Zhang Zhao received the entrustment to assist, and his achievements were accomplished. He was loyal, upright, and direct, and his actions were not for himself. However, because of his strictness, he was feared, and because of his high position, he was excluded. He did not serve as Chancellor, nor did he reach the position of Grand Tutor or Grand Protector. He lived leisurely in the lanes and only supported himself in old age. This shows that Sun Quan was not as good as Sun Ce.”
Legacy
Zhang Zhao is remembered as one of the Two Zhangs of Jiangdong and as a senior adviser who successfully stabilized Jiangdong after Sun Ce’s death.
His strict remonstrance and direct criticism show his character as a loyal minister.
However, his advocacy of surrendering to Cao Cao at Chibi and his opposition to campaigns also show his cautious and sometimes overly conservative nature.
His story represents both achievement and limitation—an adviser who successfully stabilized Jiangdong but whose conservative views and rigid personality prevented him from becoming Chancellor.
Timeline
- 156 CE: Born in Pengcheng, Xu Province
- c. 195 CE: Fled to Jiangdong; entered service under Sun Ce; appointed Chief Clerk and General Who Assists the Army
- 200 CE: Sun Ce died; assisted Sun Quan in succeeding; stabilized Jiangdong
- 207 CE: Opposed Gan Ning’s plan to attack Huang Zu
- 208 CE: Advocated surrendering to Cao Cao at Battle of Chibi; led troops to attack Dangtu (failed)
- 209 CE: Served as Army Advisor; remonstrated against Sun Quan’s tiger hunting
- 221 CE: Opposed Cao Pi’s envoys’ arrogance
- 229 CE: Sun Quan became emperor; retired; appointed General Who Assists Wu; enfeoffed as Marquis of Lou
- 232 CE: Remonstrated against sending envoys to Gongsun Yuan; retired and did not attend court; door sealed by Sun Quan; reconciled after Gongsun Yuan betrayed Sun Wu
- 236 CE: Died age 81; posthumously titled Marquis Wen
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 52, Biography of Zhang Zhao, Gu Yong, Zhuge Jin, and Bu Zhi.
- Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, various chapters.