Biography
Early life
Zhong Yao was born in 151 CE in Changshe, Yingchuan (present-day Changge, Henan).
His courtesy name was Yuanchang.
He was from the Yingchuan Zhong clan.
His grandfather was Zhong Hao, a famous Eastern Han scholar.
His father was Zhong Di, Clerk of Yingchuan Commandery.
The fortune teller’s prediction
When Zhong Yao was young, he went to Luoyang together with his clan uncle Zhong Yu.
On the way, they met a fortune teller.
The fortune teller said: “This child has the appearance of a noble person. However, he will encounter water disaster. Please be careful.”
Before they had walked ten li, when crossing a bridge, the horse was startled.
Zhong Yao fell into the water and almost drowned.
Zhong Yu, because the fortune teller’s words came true, increasingly valued Zhong Yao.
He provided him with money and expenses.
He enabled him to study exclusively.
Early service
Zhong Yao was recommended as Filial and Incorrupt.
He served as Clerk, Gentleman of the Masters of Writing, and Magistrate of Yangling.
He resigned because of illness.
He was again summoned by the Three Excellencies.
He served as Court of Judicial Review and Gentleman of the Yellow Gate.
Helping Emperor Xian escape
At that time, Emperor Xian of Han was in Chang’an, the Western Capital.
Generals Li Jue and Guo Si monopolized power.
They cut off the connection between the emperor and Guandong.
Cao Cao, Inspector of Yanzhou, sent Wang Bi as envoy to Chang’an to memorialize.
Li Jue and Guo Si and others believed: “Guandong wants to establish its own emperor. Now Cao Cao, although he sends an envoy, this is not his true intention.”
They therefore discussed detaining the envoy and refusing to accept Cao Cao’s sincerity.
Zhong Yao persuaded Li Jue and Guo Si and others: “Now heroes rise together. Each falsely claims imperial orders and controls one area. Only Inspector Cao of Yanzhou has the court in his heart. If we refuse his loyalty, this is not a method that conforms to future hopes.”
Guo Si and others, because of Zhong Yao’s words, treated him generously.
From then on, Cao Cao was able to send envoys and establish contact with the Han emperor.
The escape from Chang’an
In 195 CE, the second year of Xingping, Li Jue coerced the emperor.
Zhong Yao, together with Yang Qi, Palace Attendant and Commandant of the Guards, Ding Chong, Gentleman of the Yellow Gate, Lu Chong, Director of the Left Section of the Masters of Writing, and Han Bin, Gentleman of the Masters of Writing, jointly plotted with Yang Feng, a general under Li Jue, to kill Li Jue.
They also together lured Li Jue’s subordinate generals to rebel.
In the sixth month, Yang Feng’s plot failed and he defected to Guo Si.
Li Jue’s power weakened.
Soon after, Zhang Ji came to mediate.
The emperor was able to leave Chang’an.
In the same year, the emperor successfully returned east.
Zhong Yao played a certain role in this.
He was later appointed Palace Attendant Imperial Secretary.
He was transferred to Palace Attendant and Deputy Director of the Imperial Secretariat.
Enfeoffment
In 196 CE, the first year of Jian’an, in the eighth month, Cao Cao entered the capital.
The court enfeoffed Zhong Yao, Deputy Director of the Imperial Secretariat, and twelve others as marquises.
They rewarded meritorious ministers.
Zhong Yao, based on his previous merit, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongwu.
Pacifying Guanzhong
Ma Teng and Han Sui and other generals relied on their strength and lived in Guanzhong.
Cao Cao was very worried about this.
Through Xun Yu’s recommendation, in 199 CE, the fourth year of Jian’an, on the jia-chen day of the twelfth month (4th day of the first month of 200 CE), he ordered Zhong Yao to serve as Palace Attendant and concurrently Colonel Director of Retainers.
He acted with imperial credentials and commanded the various armies in Guanzhong.
He entrusted rear area affairs to him.
He specially granted him power not bound by regulations.
At that time, Han Sui and Ma Teng raised troops and attacked each other.
The court ordered Zhong Yao and Wei Duan, Inspector of Liang Province, to mediate.
After Zhong Yao arrived at Chang’an, he sent letters to Ma Teng, Han Sui, and others.
He explained the advantages and disadvantages of fortune and disaster to them.
Ma Teng and Han Sui both sent one son to the court as hostages.
Supporting Cao Cao at Guandu
In 200 CE, the fifth year of Jian’an, Cao Cao was locked in stalemate with Yuan Shao at Guandu.
Zhong Yao sent two thousand horses to supply military use.
Cao Cao wrote in a letter to Zhong Yao: “I received the horses you sent. They are very much needed by the troops. Guanzhong is pacified. The court has no worries about the west. This is all your merit. In the past, Xiao He guarded Guanzhong. Grain was sufficient, and the large army was victorious. This is also only equivalent to your merit.”
Campaign against Guo Yuan
In 202 CE, the seventh year of Jian’an, the Southern Xiongnu chieftain rebelled at Pingyang.
Zhong Yao led various routes of troops and surrounded them.
However, they could not capture them.
Guo Yuan, Administrator of Hedong appointed by Yuan Shang, and Gao Gan, Inspector of Bing Province, arrived at Hedong.
They joined forces with the chieftain to attack Pingyang.
They had many people.
The various generals discussed wanting to abandon and leave.
Zhong Yao said: “The Yuan clan is in a period of strength. Guo Yuan has now arrived. The various generals in Guanzhong secretly collude with him. However, the reason they have not all rebelled is only that they fear my prestige and reputation. If we issue an edict to abandon and show weakness to them, all the residents here, who is not our enemy? Even if I want to return, can I do it? This is defeating ourselves before even going to battle. Moreover, Guo Yuan is stubborn and self-willed. He competes for strength and victory. He will certainly despise our army. If they cross the Fen River and camp, we attack them before they reach the opposite shore. We can achieve a great victory.”
The victory
Zhong Yao ordered Zhang Ji to persuade Ma Teng to send troops.
Fu Gan also persuaded Ma Teng to help Cao Cao.
Ma Teng followed both men’s suggestions.
He sent his son Ma Chao to lead more than ten thousand elite troops.
They joined forces with Han Sui’s army to help Zhong Yao.
When Guo Yuan arrived, he indeed easily crossed the Fen River.
Everyone advised him to stop.
He did not listen.
Before he had crossed to the middle of the river, Zhong Yao sent troops to attack.
He achieved a great victory.
He executed Guo Yuan.
The chieftain surrendered.
The Guo Yuan incident
Guo Yuan was originally Zhong Yao’s nephew.
He was personally killed by Pang De, a subordinate under Ma Teng.
Pang De did not know he was Guo Yuan.
When Zhong Yao saw Guo Yuan’s head, he wept.
Pang De apologized to him.
Zhong Yao said: “Although Guo Yuan is my nephew, he is a state traitor. Why do you need to apologize?”
Campaign against Gao Gan
After Cao Cao captured Yecheng, Gao Gan surrendered to Cao Cao.
He was still appointed Inspector of Bing Province.
In 205 CE, the tenth year of Jian’an, Gao Gan took advantage of Cao Cao campaigning north.
He raised the province in rebellion.
At that time, the court summoned Wang Yi, Administrator of Hedong, to court.
Wang Yi, because the realm was not yet stable, was unwilling to be summoned.
The officials and people of Hedong also wanted to keep Wang Yi.
Wei Gu, Clerk of the Commandery, and Fan Xian, General of the Household, and others separately requested Zhong Yao to let Wang Yi stay in Hedong.
They conspired with Gao Gan.
Du Ji, the new Administrator of Hedong, had already received the edict and entered Hedong.
Zhong Yao did not listen to Fan Xian and others’ opinions.
He forced Wang Yi to hand over his seal.
Wang Yi had no choice but to wear his seal and ribbon and go to Xuchang.
The self-impeachment
At that time, Zhong Yao was in Luoyang.
He believed that his authority and prohibitions had lost the method of supervision.
He therefore memorialized impeaching himself.
The court did not approve.
Zhang Sheng of Henei led his followers and raided between Xiaoshan and Mianshui.
Wei Gu, Fan Xian, and Zhang Yan of Hongnong also raised troops and rebelled.
They responded to Gao Gan and Zhang Sheng.
Zhang Sheng, Gao Gan, Wei Gu, and others jointly attacked Du Ji.
They could not succeed.
They also plundered the various counties.
They obtained nothing.
Zhang Ji, following Cao Cao’s orders, went west to summon Ma Teng and other generals.
He joined forces with Zhong Yao to attack the rebel army.
They achieved a great victory.
They executed Zhang Yan and Wei Gu.
Repopulating Luoyang
Since the emperor moved west, the population of Luoyang had decreased to almost nothing.
Zhong Yao relocated people from Guanzhong.
He also recruited fleeing and rebelling people to fill it.
Within several years, the population gradually became substantial.
Campaign against Zhang Lu
In 211 CE, the sixteenth year of Jian’an, in the third month, Zhong Yao was ordered to campaign against Zhang Lu of Hanzhong.
Cao Cao sent Xiahou Yuan and others to lead troops out of Hedong.
They joined forces with Zhong Yao.
The various generals in Guanzhong suspected that Zhong Yao wanted to attack them.
Ma Chao therefore raised troops together with Han Sui, Yang Qiu, Li Kan, and Cheng Yi.
In the seventh month, Cao Cao campaigned against Ma Chao, Han Sui, and others.
Because Zhong Yao had repopulated the area, he was able to use it to guarantee supplies.
Service as Minister over the Masses
In 213 CE, the eighteenth year of Jian’an, in the third month, the Han dynasty restored the Nine Provinces system.
The Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished.
Zhong Yao’s Colonel Director of Retainers was also abolished.
Cao Cao issued an order: “The edict abolishes the Colonel Director of Retainers. Colonel Zhong has talent, wisdom, decisiveness, and insight. He is intelligent and perceptive. He can be requested to serve as Army Adviser to assist dark governance.”
Later, Cao Cao also memorialized appointing Zhong Yao as Army Adviser.
In the same year, Zhong Yao, Army Adviser, together with Xun You, Army Adviser to the Central Army, and others, jointly persuaded Cao Cao to become Duke of Wei.
Discussion about corporal punishment
After the Dukedom of Wei was first established, Cao Cao appointed Zhong Yao as Minister over the Masses.
He managed criminal law.
At that time, Cao Cao was discussing whether to restore corporal punishment.
Zhong Yao believed: “The ancient corporal punishments were established by sages. They should be restored again to replace the death penalty.”
Those who discussed believed that corporal punishment was not a method that pleased the people.
The matter was therefore set aside.
The Mao Jie case
In 216 CE, the twenty-first year of Jian’an, in the eighth month, someone secretly reported that Mao Jie saw someone who had received facial tattooing punishment.
His wife was also made an official slave.
He sighed: “Heaven does not rain because of this.”
Mao Jie was therefore arrested and imprisoned.
Zhong Yao, who was Minister over the Masses at that time, was responsible for questioning Mao Jie.
He raised principles to defend criminal law.
He refuted the matter of criminal law causing drought based on the Book of Documents.
On the surface, this was a dispute about criminal law.
Behind it, it seemed that Mao Jie was dissatisfied with Cao Cao killing Cui Yan.
He therefore angered Cao Cao.
Finally, Mao Jie was dismissed from office.
He soon died at home.
This false accusation was actually planned by Ding Yi, who supported Cao Zhi.
Service as Chancellor
In 216 CE, the twenty-first year of Jian’an, in the eighth month, Zhong Yao was promoted to Chancellor.
The Wei Feng incident
In 219 CE, the twenty-fourth year of Jian’an, in the ninth month, Zhong Yao was implicated in the Wei Feng rebellion case.
He was dismissed from office.
The Battle of Fancheng
In the intercalary month, on the ninth day, Zhong Yao presented the “Report of Congratulations on Victory.”
Sun Quan submitted as a subject.
He sent Guan Yu’s head to the north.
Cao Pi wrote a letter telling Zhong Yao about this.
Zhong Yao replied: “Your servant’s fellow commandery man, the former Minister over the Masses Xun Shuang, once said: ‘When people follow the Way and have feelings, those who love me, how lovable! Those who hate me, how hateful!’ It seems Sun Quan is even more charming.”
Cao Pi again wrote: “I received your reply. I know you are happy about the southern matter. As for Duke Xun’s pure discussion and Sun Quan’s charm, I hold the letter and cannot stop being happy. I cannot put it down. If Sun Quan still harbours deception, I will use Xu Shao of Runan’s monthly evaluation to criticize him. Sun Quan leisurely travels between two states. He looks up and down at Xun and Xu. This is also sufficient.”
Service under Cao Pi
In 220 CE, the twenty-fifth year of Jian’an, Cao Pi succeeded to the kingship of Wei.
Zhong Yao again served as Minister over the Masses.
In the same year, Zhong Yao, together with the Wei dukedom’s dukes and ministers, jointly persuaded Cao Pi to ascend the throne.
After Cao Pi became emperor, he changed Minister over the Masses to Court of Judicial Review.
Zhong Yao was advanced to Marquis of Chonggao.
Service as Grand Commandant
On the ding-mao day of the eighth month of 223 CE, the fourth year of Huangchu (23rd day of the ninth month), Zhong Yao served as Grand Commandant.
He was transferred to Marquis of Pingyang.
At that time, Hua Xin, Minister over the Masses, and Wang Lang, Minister of Works, were both famous ministers from Cao Cao’s time.
Cao Pi once said to those beside him after court: “These three dukes are all great men of one generation. Future generations will probably find it difficult to continue.”
Service as Grand Tutor
In 226 CE, the seventh year of Huangchu, Cao Rui, Emperor Ming of Wei, succeeded to the throne.
Zhong Yao was advanced to Marquis of Dingling.
His fief was increased by five hundred households.
Together with the previous, it was one thousand eight hundred households.
In the twelfth month, he was transferred to Grand Tutor.
Special treatment
Zhong Yao had leg disease.
Bowing and rising was inconvenient.
At that time, Hua Xin was also old and ill.
Therefore, when they came to court, they were all allowed to ride in carriages and sedan chairs.
They were carried up the hall by guards and seated.
Afterwards, when the Three Excellencies had diseases, this practice was used as a precedent.
Death
In 230 CE, the fourth year of Taihe, in the fourth month, Zhong Yao died.
He was eighty years old.
Cao Rui wore plain clothes and went to pay respects.
He was posthumously titled Marquis Cheng.
Posthumous honours
In 243 CE, the fourth year of Zhengshi, in the seventh month, Zhong Yao, Grand Tutor, was honoured to be enshrined in Cao Cao’s temple.
Personality
Zhong Yao was known for his open-mindedness and administrative ability.
He was also known for his integrity and loyalty.
He was also known for his calligraphy skills.
Military achievements
Pacifying Guanzhong
Zhong Yao successfully pacified Guanzhong and coordinated Ma Teng and Han Sui.
Campaign against Guo Yuan
Zhong Yao successfully campaigned against Guo Yuan and defeated him.
Campaign against Gao Gan
Zhong Yao successfully campaigned against Gao Gan and defeated the rebels.
Repopulating Luoyang
Zhong Yao successfully repopulated Luoyang and made it prosperous again.
Relationships
With Emperor Xian
Zhong Yao served under Emperor Xian and helped him escape from Chang’an.
With Cao Cao
Zhong Yao served under Cao Cao and pacified Guanzhong for him.
With Cao Pi
Zhong Yao served under Cao Pi and became one of the Three Excellencies.
With Cao Rui
Zhong Yao served under Cao Rui and became Grand Tutor.
With Xun You
Zhong Yao was close friends with Xun You.
He said: “Every time I do something, I think it over repeatedly. I believe there is nothing to change. When I consult Gongda (Xun You’s courtesy name), he always exceeds my expectations.”
Xun You set up twelve strange strategies in total.
Only Zhong Yao knew them all.
Zhong Yao compiled them but did not finish before he died.
Therefore, later generations could not know them all.
Anecdotes
The fortune teller’s prediction
When Zhong Yao was young, a fortune teller predicted he would encounter water disaster.
This came true when he fell into water.
Helping Emperor Xian escape
Zhong Yao successfully helped Emperor Xian escape from Chang’an.
Pacifying Guanzhong
Zhong Yao successfully pacified Guanzhong and coordinated Ma Teng and Han Sui.
The Guo Yuan incident
Zhong Yao’s nephew Guo Yuan was killed by Pang De.
Zhong Yao wept but said Guo Yuan was a state traitor.
The calligraphy obsession
Zhong Yao was obsessed with calligraphy.
He once wanted to borrow Cai Yong’s calligraphy manual from Wei Dan.
Wei Dan refused.
Zhong Yao was so angry he beat his chest and vomited blood.
Cao Cao used five spirit pills to save him.
After Wei Dan died, Zhong Yao secretly sent someone to dig up Wei Dan’s grave.
He finally obtained Cai Yong’s book.
Achievements
- Successfully helped Emperor Xian escape from Chang’an
- Successfully pacified Guanzhong
- Successfully campaigned against Guo Yuan and Gao Gan
- Successfully repopulated Luoyang
- Known for calligraphy skills (known as “Zhong Wang” together with Wang Xizhi)
- Known for integrity and loyalty
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Zhong Yao’s biography appears in the Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, grouped with Hua Xin and Wang Lang.
Calligraphy
Zhong Yao was a famous calligrapher.
He was known as “Zhong Wang” together with Wang Xizhi.
He was called the “ancestor of regular script.”
His calligraphy works include “Report of Congratulations on Victory,” “Recommendation of Jizhi Table,” “Declaration Table,” and others.
The corporal punishment discussion
Zhong Yao repeatedly suggested restoring corporal punishment to replace the death penalty.
However, this was never adopted.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Cao Cao said: “Guanzhong is pacified. The court has no worries about the west. This is all your merit. In the past, Xiao He guarded Guanzhong. Grain was sufficient, and the large army was victorious. This is also only equivalent to your merit.”
Cao Pi said: “Oh, how great is Wei! It serves as Han’s protective barrier. Its Chancellor is Zhong. He truly is the heart and backbone. Respectful day and night, not at leisure to rest. The hundred officials take him as teacher. Remember this as the model for the masses.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “Zhong Yao was open-minded and had administrative ability. Hua Xin was pure in virtue. Wang Lang was learned and rich. They were all great men of one generation. When Wei first received the Mandate, they ascended to the Three Excellencies. How great!”
Legacy
Zhong Yao is remembered as a key official who pacified Guanzhong and helped establish Wei’s legal system.
His calligraphy skills are also praised.
He is remembered as one of the Three Excellencies.
Timeline
- 151 CE: Born in Changshe, Yingchuan
- ?: Met fortune teller; predicted water disaster; fell into water; rescued; studied calligraphy
- ?: Recommended as Filial and Incorrupt; served as Clerk, Gentleman of the Masters of Writing, Magistrate of Yangling; resigned because of illness; served as Court of Judicial Review and Gentleman of the Yellow Gate
- 192 CE: Persuaded Li Jue and Guo Si to accept Cao Cao’s envoy
- 195 CE: Helped Emperor Xian escape from Chang’an; appointed Palace Attendant Imperial Secretary; transferred to Palace Attendant and Deputy Director of the Imperial Secretariat
- 196 CE: Enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongwu
- 199 CE: Appointed Palace Attendant and concurrently Colonel Director of Retainers; acted with imperial credentials and commanded various armies in Guanzhong; coordinated Ma Teng and Han Sui; they sent sons as hostages
- 200 CE: Sent two thousand horses to Cao Cao at Guandu; Cao Cao compared him to Xiao He
- 202 CE: Campaigned against Southern Xiongnu chieftain; campaigned against Guo Yuan; defeated Guo Yuan; Guo Yuan killed by Pang De; chieftain surrendered
- 205 CE: Campaigned against Gao Gan; memorialized impeaching himself; defeated rebels; executed Zhang Yan and Wei Gu
- ?: Repopulated Luoyang
- 211 CE: Ordered to campaign against Zhang Lu; Ma Chao and others rebelled; Cao Cao campaigned against them
- 213 CE: Colonel Director of Retainers abolished; appointed Army Adviser; persuaded Cao Cao to become Duke of Wei; appointed Minister over the Masses; discussed corporal punishment
- 216 CE: Promoted to Chancellor; questioned Mao Jie
- 219 CE: Implicated in Wei Feng rebellion case; dismissed from office; presented “Report of Congratulations on Victory”
- 220 CE: Again served as Minister over the Masses; persuaded Cao Pi to ascend the throne; transferred to Court of Judicial Review; advanced to Marquis of Chonggao
- 223 CE: Promoted to Grand Commandant; transferred to Marquis of Pingyang; one of the Three Excellencies
- 226 CE: Advanced to Marquis of Dingling; fief one thousand eight hundred households; transferred to Grand Tutor; allowed to ride in carriage because of leg disease
- 230 CE: Died age 80; posthumous Marquis Cheng
- 243 CE: Honoured to be enshrined in Cao Cao’s temple
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 13, Biography of Zhong, Hua, Wang.
- Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, various chapters.