Jiang Wei (simplified: 姜维, traditional: 薑維, pinyin: Jiāng Wéi), courtesy name Boyue (伯约 Bóyuē), was a general of Shu Han. He was from Ji County in Tianshui (modern Gangu, Gansu). His father Jiang Jiong (姜冏) died in battle defending the commandery; Jiang Wei was given the post of Gentleman of the Palace and participated in Tianshui military affairs. When Zhuge Liang marched on Qishan in 228, the administrator Ma Zun suspected him and fled; Jiang Wei could not re-enter the city and surrendered to Shu. Zhuge Liang valued him as “a top man of Liangzhou” and put him in charge of training; he was made Clerk of the Granary, General Who Upholds Righteousness, and Marquis of Dangyang. After Zhuge Liang’s death he became Right Supervisor of the Army and Marquis of Pingxiang, then under Jiang Wan and Fei Yi rose to General Who Guards the West (Governor of Liang Province), General Who Guards the Capital, and co‑holder of the Secretariat. Fei Yi limited his troops to under ten thousand; after Fei Yi’s assassination (253) Jiang Wei led larger northern campaigns—victory at Taoxi over Wang Jing (255), defeat at Duan Valley by Deng Ai (256)—and was made Grand General. He changed Han’s defence in Hanzhong to “gather grain and pull back” (敛兵聚谷). Opposed by the court and by the eunuch Huang Hao, he withdrew to Tazhong to farm. In 263 Zhong Hui and Deng Ai invaded; Jiang Wei held Jiange against Zhong Hui, but Deng Ai crossed Yinping and took Chengdu; Liu Shan surrendered. Jiang Wei surrendered to Zhong Hui and, hoping to use Zhong Hui’s rebellion to restore Han, conspired with him; when mutineers killed Zhong Hui, Jiang Wei was also killed (264). His loyalty and the phrase “gall bladder as large as a dou” (胆大如斗) became famous.
Biography
Origins and defection to Shu
Jiang Wei was from Ji County in Tianshui. His father Jiang Jiong was Officer of Merit in the commandery and died defending the administrator during a Qiang/rebel campaign; Jiang Wei was given office as Gentleman of the Palace (or Clerk) and participated in Tianshui military affairs. He was fond of Zheng Xuan’s scholarship and had broad ambitions. In 228 Zhuge Liang marched on Qishan. The administrator Ma Zun was out with Jiang Wei and others when he heard the Shu army was near and that the counties were responding; he suspected Jiang Wei and the rest of disloyalty and fled by night to Shanggui. When Jiang Wei and the others realised and tried to return, the gates were shut; they went to Ji and were also refused entry, so they went to Zhuge Liang and surrendered. Ma Zun’s defeat at Jieting led Zhuge Liang to withdraw with households from Xi County; Jiang Wei was separated from his mother, who remained in Wei. Zhuge Liang appointed him Clerk of the Granary with the title General Who Upholds Righteousness and Marquis of Dangyang (age twenty-seven). He wrote to Zhang Yi and Jiang Wan that Jiang Wei was loyal, careful, and superior to Li Shao and Ma Liang—“a top man of Liangzhou”—and that he was keen on military affairs, had courage and a sense of duty, understood the art of war, and had the Han in mind; he should train the central Tiger infantry and then be presented to the sovereign.
Under Jiang Wan and Fei Yi
After Zhuge Liang’s death at Wuzhangyuan (234), Jiang Wei returned to Chengdu and was made Right Supervisor of the Army, General Who Supports the Han, and Marquis of Pingxiang. In 238 he went to Hanzhong with Jiang Wan; when Jiang Wan became Grand Marshal he made Jiang Wei his司马 and had him lead side armies west several times. In 243 he was made General Who Guards the West and Governor of Liang Province. In 247 he was made General Who Guards the Capital and shared the Secretariat with Fei Yi. That year he put down a revolt in Pingkang (Wenshan) and fought Guo Huai and Xiahou Ba at the border of Longxi, Nan’an, and Jincheng. He was granted a tally (249). Whenever he wanted a large expedition, Fei Yi would not allow it and limited his troops to under ten thousand, so he had no major gains.
Northern campaigns after Fei Yi’s death
In 253 Fei Yi was assassinated by the Wei defector Guo Xiu. Jiang Wei led tens of thousands out from Shiying via Dongting and besieged Nan’an; Wei’s雍州刺史 Chen Tai relieved the siege and Jiang Wei withdrew when grain ran short. In 254 he was given supervision of domestic and foreign military affairs. The Wei Chief of Didao Li Jian secretly asked to surrender; Jiang Wei went out to Longxi, took Didao, and besieged Xiangwu. He fought Xu Zhi, killed him, and the Wei army retreated; his vanguard General Zhang Ni died in battle. He took Heguan, Didao, and Lintao and moved the three counties’ people to Mianzhu and Fan. In 255 (Wei Zheng Yuan 2) Sima Shi died; Jiang Wei went out with Xiahou Ba, Zhang Yi and others. Zhang Yi argued that the state was small and the people tired and they should not exhaust the army, but Jiang Wei did not listen. They reached Fuhan and advanced on Didao. Wei’s Governor of Yong Province Wang Jing met them at Taoxi without waiting for Chen Tai; Jiang Wei defeated him heavily and tens of thousands of Wei troops died. Wang Jing retreated to Didao; Jiang Wei besieged it. Sima Zhao sent Deng Ai with Chen Tai to relieve the siege; they bypassed the high ground and reached the hills southeast of Didao. Jiang Wei withdrew to Zhongti. In 256 Jiang Wei was made Grand General. He and Hu Ji agreed to meet at Shanggui; Jiang Wei went out by way of Qishan but when he heard Deng Ai was prepared he switched to Dongting and attacked Nan’an. Deng Ai held Wuchengshan; Jiang Wei crossed the Wei by night and advanced along the hills toward Shanggui. Hu Ji did not arrive on time; Deng Ai defeated Jiang Wei at Duan Valley and the Shu army suffered heavy losses. The people resented Jiang Wei and Longxi was restless. Jiang Wei asked to be demoted and was made General of the Rear, acting Grand General. In 257 Zhuge Dan rebelled in Huainan and Wei drew troops from Guanzhong. Jiang Wei led a large force out through Luogu to Shenling; Wei’s Sima Wang and Deng Ai held the Great Wall. Jiang Wei challenged repeatedly but they did not respond. In 258 when Zhuge Dan was defeated Jiang Wei returned and was restored as Grand General.
Defence policy and withdrawal to Tazhong
Jiang Wei changed the defence of Hanzhong from the old “solidify every enclosure” approach (as under Wei Yan and Wang Ping) to “gather troops and grain” in Han and Le and hold the passes, so that if the enemy advanced they would run short of supply and could be hit when they withdrew. He had Hu Ji withdraw to Hanzhong, Wang Han hold Lecheng, Jiang Bin hold Hancheng, and set up outposts at Xi’an, Jianwei, Wuwei, Shimén, Wucheng, Jianchang, and Linyuan. In 262 he went out to Houhe and was defeated by Deng Ai; he withdrew to Tazhong. He had asked Liu Shan to kill the eunuch Huang Hao; Liu Shan refused and Huang Hao sought to replace him with Yan Yu. Jiang Wei feared to return to Chengdu and used the pretext of farming at Tazhong to stay away.
Fall of Shu and death
In 263 Zhong Hui was training troops in Guanzhong. Jiang Wei memorialised that Zhong Hui was preparing to move and requested that Zhang Yi and Liao Hua be sent to guard Yang’an Pass and Yinping Bridge. Huang Hao consulted diviners and told Liu Shan the enemy would not come; the court did not act. When Wei invaded in several columns—Zhong Hui toward Luogu, Deng Ai into Tazhong to pin Jiang Wei, and Zhuge Xu to Yinping Bridge—Liu Shan sent Liao Hua to support Tazhong and Zhang Yi and Dong Jue to Yang’an. Jiang Wei broke free of Deng Ai and withdrew; he got past Zhuge Xu by a ruse (going north then doubling back over the bridge). He joined Liao Hua, gave up Yinping, and met Zhang Yi and Dong Jue; they held Jiange. Zhong Hui could not take Jiange and considered retreating. Deng Ai crossed Yinping by the景谷 byway, took Mianzhu, and killed Zhuge Zhan; Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai. Jiang Wei first heard that Zhuge Zhan had been defeated and received conflicting reports about Liu Shan (hold Chengdu, go to Wu, or go south); he led his army toward Guanghan and Qidao to ascertain. When he received Liu Shan’s order to surrender he had his men lay down arms and surrendered to Zhong Hui at Fu. His officers were furious and “drew swords and cut stones.” Zhong Hui treated him well (“out in the same carriage, in on the same mat”) and said that compared to central plains名士, even诸葛诞 and夏侯玄 did not surpass him. In 264 Zhong Hui had Deng Ai sent away in a cage cart and plotted rebellion. Jiang Wei saw that he could use Zhong Hui to try to restore Han: have Zhong Hui kill the northern generals, then kill Zhong Hui and wipe out the Wei troops. He secretly wrote to Liu Shan: “May Your Majesty endure a few days of humiliation; your servant wishes to make the altars of state dangerous and then safe again, the sun and moon dark and then bright again.” On the 18th (3 March) mutineers under Hu Lie’s men rose in Chengdu. Zhong Hui asked Jiang Wei what to do; Jiang Wei said they had to fight. Jiang Wei led Zhong Hui’s men and killed five or six with his own hand; the rebels killed Jiang Wei and then Zhong Hui. Jiang Wei’s wife and children and many Shu officials (e.g. Liu Xuan, Zhang Yi, Jiang Bin, Jiang Xian) were killed in the disorder. It was said that when his body was opened his gall bladder was “as large as a dou” (胆大如斗). Western Wei later posthumously enfeoffed him as King Kaiming (开明王).
Personality and traits
Zhuge Liang praised his loyalty, diligence, and precision and ranked him above Li Shao and Ma Liang; he said Jiang Wei was very quick in military matters, had courage and a sense of duty, understood the meaning of the art of war, and had the Han in mind. Xi Zheng wrote that as supreme general he lived in a modest house with no surplus wealth, no concubines or music, and that he was frugal and learned—“a model for his time”—though critics blamed him for exhausting the people with campaigns. He replied to his mother’s letter asking him to return (当归) with “we have far-reaching aims, not ‘return’” (但有远志，不在当归). Chen Shou judged that he had some civil and military ability and sought merit and fame but “played with the masses and exhausted the army” and lacked clear judgment, so he came to a bad end.
Military achievements
Jiang Wei fought repeatedly on the western front (Longxi, Nan’an, Didao, Taoxi, Duan Valley, Luogu, Houhe). His greatest victory was at Taoxi (255), where he crushed Wang Jing; his worst defeat was at Duan Valley (256) when Hu Ji failed to meet him and Deng Ai defeated him. He held Jiange against Zhong Hui in 263 until Liu Shan surrendered. He changed Hanzhong defence to “gather grain and pull back,” which was later criticised when Zhong Hui quickly penetrated after Jiang Shu surrendered the pass.
Relationships
He served Wei (Tianshui) until 228, then Shu. Zhuge Liang recruited and trained him; Jiang Wan and Fei Yi gave him increasing authority; Fei Yi capped his troops. Zhang Yi opposed his northern campaigns; Liao Hua warned that “arms not sheathed will burn”—meaning Jiang Wei. Huang Hao and Yan Yu opposed him; he asked Liu Shan to kill Huang Hao and when refused withdrew to Tazhong. After surrender he allied with Zhong Hui in the hope of killing the Wei generals and then Zhong Hui to restore Han.
Anecdotes and allusions
”Far-reaching aims, not ‘return’”
但有远志，不在当归 (Dàn yǒu yuǎnzhì, bù zài dāngguī)
Jiang Wei’s mother (in Wei) wrote asking him to “return” (当归, also the name of a herb). He replied: “A hundred qing of good land is not in one mu; we have far-reaching aims (远志), not ‘return’ (当归).” 远志 and 当归 are both herb names; he meant his ambition was far-reaching and he would not go back.
Source: Zaji (in SGZ)
Type: Historical
Gall bladder as large as a dou
胆大如斗 (Dǎn dà rú dǒu)
After Jiang Wei was killed in the Chengdu mutiny, it was said that when his body was opened his gall bladder was as large as a dou (or 升 in some texts). Hence “bold as Jiang Wei” and “Jiang Boyue’s gall.”
Source: Shiyu (in SGZ)
Type: Historical
”May the altars be dangerous then safe again”
社稷危而复安，日月幽而复明 (Shèjì wēi ér fù ān, rìyuè yōu ér fù míng)
Jiang Wei’s secret letter to Liu Shan after surrendering to Zhong Hui: “May Your Majesty endure a few days of humiliation; your servant wishes to make the altars of state dangerous and then safe again, the sun and moon dark and then bright again.” Often cited as evidence of his intent to restore Han through Zhong Hui’s rebellion.
Source: Huayang guo zhi (in SGZ)
Type: Historical
Achievements
- Military: Repeated northern campaigns (Taoxi victory over Wang Jing 255, Duan Valley defeat 256, Luogu 257, Houhe 262); defence of Jiange 263; changed Hanzhong to “gather grain and pull back.”
- Political: Grand General, Governor of Liang Province, co‑holder of the Secretariat; memorialised to guard passes in 263 (ignored).
- Legacy: Controversial (blamed for exhausting Shu vs. seen as loyal restorer); “gall bladder as large as a dou”; “far-reaching aims, not return”; Western Wei King Kaiming.
Behind the scenes
Jiang Wei is in SGZ Shu 14 (with Jiang Wan, Fei Yi). Pei Songzhi cites Wei lüe, Han Jin Chunqiu, Shiyu, Huayang guo zhi, and Sun Sheng; he defended Jiang Wei against Sun Sheng’s criticism (e.g. that if Jiang Wei had gone back to save Chengdu he would have been caught between Zhong Hui and Deng Ai). The Romance has him die of heart pain and suicide after the mutiny; historically he was killed fighting. “Gall as large as a dou” may be a corruption of “as large as a sheng” (升).
Historical evaluations
- Zhuge Liang: “Loyal and diligent, precise; Li Shao and Ma Liang are not his equal; a top man of Liangzhou”; “very quick in military matters, has courage and a sense of duty, understands the art of war, has the Han in mind.”
- Zhong Hui: “With Boyue compared to central名士, even Gongxiu and Taichu do not surpass him.”
- Xi Zheng: “As supreme general he lived in a modest house, had no surplus wealth, no concubines or music… frugal and learned—a model for his time.”
- Chen Shou: “Had some civil and military ability, aimed at merit and fame; but he played with the masses and exhausted the army, his judgment was not thorough, and in the end he met a violent death.”
- Pei Songzhi: Disagreed with Sun Sheng; held that holding Jiange was the right move and that the plan to use Zhong Hui to kill the Wei generals and then kill Zhong Hui to restore Han was a plausible “outside the box” strategy.
Legacy
Jiang Wei is remembered as Zhuge Liang’s heir in the field and as the general who held Jiange but could not prevent Deng Ai’s Yinping strike. His attempt to use Zhong Hui to restore Han and his death in the mutiny, and the “gall as large as a dou” story, have made him a symbol of loyalty and boldness. Debates continue over whether his repeated northern campaigns weakened Shu or were a reasonable strategy. He appears in the Romance, opera (e.g. “Receiving Jiang Wei”), film, and games.
Timeline
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 202 | Born in Ji, Tianshui |
| Before 228 | Gentleman of the Palace (or Clerk), participated in Tianshui military affairs |
| 228 | Zhuge Liang at Qishan; Ma Zun fled; Jiang Wei shut out, surrendered to Shu; Clerk of Granary, General Who Upholds Righteousness, Marquis of Dangyang (age 27) |
| 234 | Zhuge Liang died; Right Supervisor of the Army, General Who Supports the Han, Marquis of Pingxiang |
| 238–243 | Under Jiang Wan at Hanzhong;司马; General Who Guards the West, Governor of Liang Province |
| 247 | General Who Guards the Capital, shared Secretariat with Fei Yi; put down Pingkang revolt; fought Guo Huai, Xiahou Ba |
| 249 | Granted tally |
| 253 | Fei Yi assassinated; Jiang Wei besieged Nan’an, withdrew |
| 254 | Supervised domestic and foreign military; took Didao, Xiangwu; killed Xu Zhi; moved three counties’ people |
| 255 | Taoxi: defeated Wang Jing; besieged Didao; withdrew when Chen Tai, Deng Ai relieved |
| 256 | Grand General; Duan Valley defeat (Hu Ji did not arrive); demoted to General of the Rear, acting Grand General |
| 257 | Luogu campaign; Sima Wang, Deng Ai held; 258 returned, restored as Grand General |
| 258+ | “Gather grain and pull back” in Hanzhong |
| 262 | Houhe defeated by Deng Ai; Tazhong; asked to kill Huang Hao, refused; stayed at Tazhong |
| 263 | Memorialised to guard passes (ignored); Wei invaded; held Jiange vs Zhong Hui; Deng Ai crossed Yinping; Liu Shan surrendered; Jiang Wei surrendered to Zhong Hui |
| 264 (3 Mar) | Zhong Hui’s rebellion; Jiang Wei conspired to use it to restore Han; mutiny; Jiang Wei and Zhong Hui killed; “gall as large as a dou” |