Biography
Early life and education
Zhong Hui was born in 225 CE in Changshe County, Yingchuan Commandery (present-day Changge, Henan). His father Zhong Yao was already over seventy years old when Zhong Hui was born. His mother Zhang Changpu was a concubine of Zhong Yao. According to Zhong Hui’s biography of his mother, she came from a good family and had learning, placing great emphasis on education.
Zhong Hui wrote that under his mother’s instruction, he began studying the Classic of Filial Piety at age four, recited the Analects at age seven, recited the Book of Songs at age eight, recited the Book of Documents at age ten, recited the Book of Changes at age eleven, recited the Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals and Discourses of the States at age twelve, recited the Rites of Zhou and Book of Rites at age thirteen, read his father Zhong Yao’s Record of Changes at age fourteen, and entered the Imperial Academy at age fifteen for advanced study.
Early recognition
When Zhong Hui was young, he was intelligent and precocious. At age five, Zhong Yao took him to see Jiang Ji. Jiang Ji considered Zhong Hui “not an ordinary person.”
When Zhong Hui reached adulthood, he had talent in calculation and skill and was learned, especially skilled in the study of names and principles (名理), continuing day and night, and thus gained a reputation.
Around age twenty, Zhong Hui was famous together with Wang Bi and was known for his studies of the Book of Changes and Laozi.
Early career
In 244 CE, Zhong Hui began his career as Gentleman of the Secretariat. In 247 CE, he was promoted to Gentleman of the Palace. In 249 CE, he was appointed Palace Attendant.
That year, when the Gaopingling Incident occurred, Zhong Hui was in attendance with Emperor Cao Fang.
Service under Sima Shi
In 254 CE, when Cao Mao, Duke of Gaogui Township, ascended the throne, he granted Zhong Hui the title Marquis within the Passes.
At this time, Zhong Hui’s elder brother Zhong Yu served as Commandant of the Court of Justice and handled Xiahou Xuan’s case according to law. Zhong Hui followed Sima Shi, Grand General, in attacking Guanqiu Jian’s rebellion and managed confidential matters.
Sima Shi once asked Zhong Hui how to evaluate Emperor Cao Mao. Zhong Hui replied: “His literature is like Chen Si (Cao Zhi), and his military ability is like Taizu (Cao Cao).”
The succession crisis
In 255 CE, Sima Shi died suddenly at Xuchang. Sima Zhao, General Who Guards the Army, took command of the army, and Zhong Hui planned strategy in the army.
Shortly after the rebellion was pacified, a court edict arrived ordering Fu Gu, Director of the Imperial Secretariat, to lead the army, while Sima Zhao, General Who Guards the Army, was to temporarily remain at Xuchang to await orders.
Zhong Hui plotted with Fu Gu to have Fu Gu submit a memorial to the emperor, directly having Sima Zhao lead the army together and retreat to station south of the Luo River.
The Cao Wei court then had no choice but to appoint Sima Zhao as Grand General and Assistant in Government. Zhong Hui was transferred to Gentleman of the Yellow Gate and enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongwu Pavilion, with a fief of three hundred households.
Service under Cao Mao
When Zhong Hui served as Gentleman of the Yellow Gate, Cao Mao often had Zhong Hui, together with Sima Wang, Wang Shen, Pei Xiu, and others, lecture and feast in the Eastern Hall of the palace and gave them each nicknames.
During Zhong Hui’s service as a Gentleman, he once recorded Cao Mao’s discussion with his ministers evaluating the relative merits of Shaokang of Xia and Emperor Gao of Han.
Suppressing Zhuge Dan’s rebellion
In 257 CE, Zhong Hui’s mother Zhang Changpu died. Zhong Hui wrote a biography for his mother, not calling her a concubine but calling her a “lady of rank,” and recorded that Cao Mao issued an edict ordering Sima Zhao, Grand General, to generously provide funeral gifts.
While Zhong Hui was in mourning at home for his mother, he heard that the court had summoned Zhuge Dan to serve as Minister over the Masses. Zhong Hui believed Zhuge Dan would certainly not accept the order and rushed to find Sima Zhao. Sima Zhao responded that the matter had already been implemented and would not be changed. Later, Zhuge Dan indeed raised troops in rebellion.
Emperor Cao Mao personally led the campaign and stationed his army at Xiangcheng, ordering Zhong Hui, then Gentleman of the Yellow Gate, and Pei Xiu, Regular Attendant, to follow Sima Zhao, Grand General, together to attack Zhuge Dan, who had rebelled at Shouchun.
Zhong Hui used a scheme to induce Quan Yi, a Wu general, to surrender, causing the various generals in Shouchun city to split among themselves. Finally, they successfully captured Shouchun.
After the great army returned victorious, the court wanted to promote Zhong Hui to Minister over the Masses (one of the Nine Ministers), but Zhong Hui firmly declined. He was then appointed Gentleman of the Palace in the Grand General’s office managing records, meaning he served as a close attendant to the emperor while managing documents and confidential matters in the Grand General’s office. This was a position only trusted confidants of Sima Zhao could hold.
Because of his achievements in attacking Zhuge Dan, the court enfeoffed him as Marquis of Chen, but he repeatedly declined. Emperor Cao Mao issued an edict praising his attitude of achieving success without seeking position.
Colonel Director of Retainers
After Cao Mao was killed, around the end of 261 CE, Zhong Hui succeeded Wang Xiang as Colonel Director of Retainers.
Although Colonel Director of Retainers was not a palace position, Zhong Hui continued to exert his political influence, holding the power of rewards, punishments, life, and death. For example, he planned the execution of Ji Kang.
During his service as Colonel Director of Retainers, he promoted Xiang Xiong, who had mourned Wang Jing, from prison to Chief of Capital Officials, a subordinate official of the Colonel Director of Retainers.
Planning the conquest of Shu
In 262 CE, the third year of Jingyuan, Sima Zhao appointed Zhong Hui as General Who Guards the West with Credentials and Commander of all military affairs in Guanzhong.
In the autumn of 263 CE, Sima Zhao ordered an attack on Shu Han. He ordered Deng Ai to lead over thirty thousand troops toward Gansong, Tazhong, and other places to contain Jiang Wei. Zhuge Xu was ordered to lead over thirty thousand troops toward Wujie, Qiaotou, and other places to cut off Jiang Wei’s retreat. Zhong Hui was the main general, leading over one hundred thousand troops, advancing separately from Xiegu, Luogu, and Ziwugu.
Zhong Hui ordered Xu Yi, General of the Household, to repair the road in front, while he led the great army to follow behind. When crossing a bridge, a warhorse’s hoof fell into a pit. Zhong Hui, not considering Xu Yi’s father Xu Chu’s meritorious service, executed Xu Yi. When the various armies heard of this, none were not terrified and fearful.
The conquest of Shu
At that time, Shu Han ordered all defensive positions not to engage in battle and to retreat to Han and Le cities to defend firmly.
Zhong Hui had Xun Kai, General Who Protects the Army, and Li Fu, General of the Vanguard, each lead ten thousand troops to separately besiege Hancheng and Lecheng.
Zhong Hui advanced west from Yang’an Pass and sent someone to offer sacrifices at Zhuge Liang’s grave, ordering soldiers not to graze horses or cut firewood near his grave.
Zhong Hui also sent Hu Lie, General Who Protects the Army, and others to go ahead, capture Guancheng, and obtain the grain stored there.
Jiang Wei withdrew from Tazhong, advanced to Yinping, tricked Zhuge Xu, who wanted to cut off the Shu army’s retreat, gathered forces, and wanted to fight back to Guancheng. Before he arrived, he heard that Guancheng had fallen, so he retreated to Baishui and defended Jiange together with Zhang Yi and Liao Hua to resist Zhong Hui.
Zhong Hui issued the “Proclamation to Shu Generals, Officials, Officers, and People” (移蜀將吏士民檄) to persuade the Shu people and army to surrender.
Seizing command
Deng Ai pursued and attacked Jiang Wei until Yinping and wanted to bypass Jiange, entering Jiangyou from Handeyang and Zuodan Road, reaching Mianzhu, and approaching Chengdu. He invited Zhuge Xu to go together along the Yinping Road.
Zhuge Xu refused on the grounds that he had not received orders to advance west, advanced to Baishui, and joined forces with Zhong Hui.
Zhong Hui sent Tian Zhang and others to advance directly to Jiangyou from southwest of Jiange. After advancing less than one hundred li, Tian Zhang first broke through three Shu Han ambush camps. Deng Ai had Tian Zhang serve as vanguard and advanced unopposed.
Zhong Hui and Zhuge Xu’s forces advanced directly to Jiange. However, Zhong Hui wanted to monopolise military authority and secretly reported that Zhuge Xu feared the enemy and did not advance. He then had Zhuge Xu put in a prison cart and sent back to the capital. In this way, the great army was all under Zhong Hui’s command.
Stalemate at Jiange
The Shu Han army occupied advantageous terrain and defended Jiange firmly. Zhong Hui’s great army attacked Jiange but could not capture it.
In the tenth month of winter, Sima Zhao had already been enfeoffed as Duke of Jin and granted the Nine Bestowments because the various battle lines frequently reported victories.
The Wei army attacked the pass but could not capture it, and the grain transport route was distant. Zhong Hui began to discuss withdrawing the army.
Deng Ai’s success and Jiang Wei’s surrender
At this time, Deng Ai achieved a surprise victory, leading troops to break through Mianzhu and kill Zhuge Zhan and his son. When Jiang Wei and others heard that Zhuge Zhan had been defeated, they led their subordinates east toward Ba Commandery.
Zhong Hui then led the great army to Fu County and at the same time sent Hu Lie, Tian Xu, Pang Hui, and others to pursue Jiang Wei.
Deng Ai led troops to press toward Chengdu. Liu Shan led the masses to surrender, and Shu Han officially perished. Liu Shan sent someone to order Jiang Wei to surrender to Zhong Hui.
Jiang Wei advanced to Qi County in Guanghan and gave his credentials to Hu Lie, then surrendered to Zhong Hui from the eastern road.
After the conquest
Zhong Hui ordered a ban on officers and soldiers plundering, treated scholars with courtesy, and used this to pacify Shu officials. He also befriended Jiang Bin and Jiang Xian and became very close friends with Jiang Wei.
On the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth month, the court issued an edict. Because of the achievements in attacking Shu, Zhong Hui was appointed Minister over the Masses (one of the Three Dukes) and enfeoffed as a County Marquis, with his fief increased by ten thousand households. His two sons were enfeoffed as Marquises within the Passes, each with a fief of one thousand households.
The conspiracy against Deng Ai
After pacifying Shu, Zhong Hui had intentions of rebellion. The only person he feared was Deng Ai. At the same time, after Deng Ai broke through Shu, he relied on his achievements and was proud, accepting orders and acting on his own authority. Zhong Hui then secretly reported to Sima Zhao that Deng Ai had signs of rebellion.
At the same time, Wei Guan, Hu Lie, Shi Zuan, and others also submitted memorials saying Deng Ai had rebellious actions.
Arresting Deng Ai
On the first day of the first month of 264 CE, the court ordered Deng Ai to be sent back to the capital in a prison cart. Sima Zhao feared Deng Ai would not obey the order and ordered Zhong Hui to advance to Chengdu. Wei Guan, the supervisor, went ahead, holding Sima Zhao’s handwritten letter, and had Deng Ai put in a prison cart.
After Deng Ai was arrested, Zhong Hui immediately rushed to Chengdu, commanded the great army, and his prestige shook the western lands. He believed his achievements and fame were unmatched in the realm and was unwilling to remain subordinate to others. In addition, he had fierce generals and elite troops all under his control, so he raised troops in rebellion.
The rebellion
Zhong Hui planned to have Jiang Wei lead Shu troops out of Xiegu to occupy Chang’an, then send cavalry by land and infantry by water to seize the realm.
Zhong Hui received a letter from Sima Zhao saying: “I fear Deng Ai will not obey orders. Now I am sending Jia Chong, General Who Protects the Army, to lead over ten thousand infantry and cavalry into Xiegu and station at Lecheng. I personally lead one hundred thousand troops and station at Chang’an. We will meet soon.”
Zhong Hui was greatly alarmed after receiving the letter and said to his confidants: “Merely capturing Deng Ai—the Chancellor knows I alone can do this. He leads a great army—he must have discovered something unusual. We should set out quickly. If things go smoothly, we can obtain the realm. If things do not go smoothly, we can still retreat to Shu and learn from Liu Bei to maintain a separate regime.
“Since the Huainan campaign, I have never made a miscalculation and am already famous far and near. In my situation of such high achievements and great fame, how can there be a good end?”
The mutiny
Zhong Hui arrived at Chengdu on the fifteenth day of the first month and first sent Deng Ai away.
On the sixteenth day, he summoned generals, commandery administrators, Colonels of the Rapid as Tigers, and above, as well as old Shu Han officials, to hold a funeral for Empress Guo of Wei Ming in the Shu Han court hall and falsely claimed to have her edict to raise troops to attack Sima Zhao.
Zhong Hui had the various officers and soldiers write their agreement on boards as proof and sent trusted confidants to lead the various armies.
However, the Wei generals did not follow. Zhong Hui then locked them all in the various government offices of Yi Province, sent troops to strictly guard them, and kept Wei Guan by his side to discuss.
Zhong Hui wanted to force Wei Guan to make a decision, so the two each held a blade across their knees and did not sleep all night.
Zhong Hui had a trusted subordinate named Qiu Jian, who was an old subordinate of Hu Lie. He said to Zhong Hui: “We should send a trusted confidant to serve Hu Lie food and water. The various Colonels of the Rapid as Tigers should also have one attendant each according to precedent.”
Hu Lie took the opportunity to fabricate a lie, saying that Zhong Hui had already dug a large pit and wanted to beat the officers one by one to death and bury them in the pit. The personal soldiers of the various Colonels of the Rapid as Tigers also spread this rumour by word of mouth. Within one night, everyone had heard of it, and people’s hearts were unstable.
Someone suggested to Zhong Hui: “We should kill all the officers above Colonel of the Rapid as Tigers.” Zhong Hui hesitated and could not decide.
The end
The various armies outside the city were already planning to attack Zhong Hui, but because Wei Guan was in the city, they did not dare to act rashly.
Zhong Hui ordered Wei Guan to comfort the various armies. Wei Guan said to Zhong Hui: “You are the master of the three armies—you should go yourself.” Zhong Hui said: “You are the supervisor—you should go first, and I will follow behind.”
Wei Guan left the hall, then feigned serious illness and could not get up. When Zhong Hui learned that Wei Guan was seriously ill, he no longer had any concerns, enabling Wei Guan to escape.
On the eighteenth day (3 March 264 CE) at noon, Hu Lie’s subordinates and Hu Yuan, son of Hu Lie, went out beating drums. The various army officers and soldiers, with no one to command them, all swarmed toward the city gate.
At that time, Zhong Hui had just given Jiang Wei armour and weapons. Hearing that there were troops causing chaos outside, Zhong Hui asked in alarm: “The soldiers are coming—it seems they want to cause chaos. What should we do?”
Jiang Wei said: “We should just attack them.”
Zhong Hui sent troops to execute the locked-up Colonels of the Rapid as Tigers and commandery administrators. Those inside used tables to block the door, and the soldiers also struck the door but could not break it open.
After a short time, the soldiers outside set up ladders and climbed the city gate, continuously rushing into the city, setting fire to city buildings, and shooting arrows like rain.
The locked-up Colonels of the Rapid as Tigers and commandery administrators took advantage of the chaos to escape and joined with their subordinates.
Jiang Wei led Zhong Hui’s people around him to fight, personally killing five or six people. Wei soldiers killed Jiang Wei and then competed to advance and kill Zhong Hui.
Zhong Hui, together with several hundred people in his tent, walked around the hall and was finally killed by Wei soldiers at age forty.
Aftermath
After Zhong Hui died, the Wei army had no one to restrain them, and Chengdu’s order was thrown into chaos. Mutinous soldiers plundered everywhere, and death and destruction were everywhere.
Several hundred officers and soldiers in Zhong Hui’s tent were killed. Jiang Wei’s wife and children were all killed. Liu Xuan, Crown Prince of former Shu Han, Zhang Yi, Left General of Chariots and Cavalry, Jiang Bin, General Who Protects the Army of Hancheng, Jiang Xian, Attendant to the Crown Prince, Wei Ji, Grand Director of the Imperial Secretariat, and others were also killed by mutinous soldiers.
Guan Yu’s family was exterminated by Pang Hui, son of Pang De.
Deng Ai’s subordinates caught up with the prison cart and wanted to welcome Deng Ai back. Wei Guan sent Tian Xu to kill Deng Ai and his son. Shi Zuan and others were also killed.
Because Deng Ai was convicted of rebellion, Deng Ai’s various sons in Luoyang were all executed. His wife and grandsons were exiled to the Western Regions.
Afterward, Wei Guan restrained the various generals, and the chaos in Chengdu was pacified.
Family consequences
Initially, Cao Wei had appointed Deng Ai as Grand Commandant and Zhong Hui as Minister over the Masses, both with credentials, commanding the various armies as before. However, both men had already died before receiving the appointments.
Zhong Hui had not married and had adopted his elder brother’s two sons. Zhong Yong followed Zhong Hui in rebellion and was killed together with him. Adopted son Zhong Yi and nephews Zhong Jun and Zhong Chan were all imprisoned and should have been sentenced to death.
Sima Zhao, representing Emperor Cao Huan of Wei, issued an edict saying that considering Zhong Yao and Zhong Yu’s achievements, only Zhong Yi and Zhong Yong’s various sons were executed. Zhong Jun and Zhong Chan were pardoned, and those with official titles remained as before.
Sima Zhao tacitly allowed Xiang Xiong to bury Zhong Hui.
Personality
Zhong Hui was known for his intelligence, strategic ability, and learning. He was described as having “refined strategy and calculation” and was compared to Zhang Liang by his contemporaries.
However, he was also described as having “great ambition but limited capacity” and “not considering disaster and difficulty.” His elder brother Zhong Yu warned that “Zhong Hui relies on schemes and is difficult to protect—he cannot be exclusively entrusted.”
He was known for being ambitious and proud. After conquering Shu, he believed his achievements and fame were unmatched and was unwilling to remain subordinate, leading to his rebellion.
He was also known for his ability to imitate others’ handwriting, which he used to forge letters from Deng Ai and others to achieve his goals.
Military achievements
Suppressing Guanqiu Jian’s rebellion
Zhong Hui followed Sima Shi in attacking Guanqiu Jian’s rebellion and managed confidential matters. When Sima Shi died suddenly, Zhong Hui helped Sima Zhao maintain control of the army.
Suppressing Zhuge Dan’s rebellion
Zhong Hui’s greatest achievement before the conquest of Shu was his role in suppressing Zhuge Dan’s rebellion. He used a scheme to induce Quan Yi to surrender, causing the various generals in Shouchun to split among themselves and enabling the successful capture of Shouchun.
Conquest of Shu
Zhong Hui’s main achievement was leading the main force in the conquest of Shu Han. Although he was blocked at Jiange by Jiang Wei, Deng Ai’s success forced Liu Shan to surrender, and Zhong Hui was able to enter Chengdu and accept Jiang Wei’s surrender.
Relationships
With Sima Shi
Zhong Hui was greatly appreciated by Sima Shi, who called him “truly a talent to assist a king.” Sima Shi recognised Zhong Hui’s ability when Zhong Hui helped Yu Song revise a memorial by changing only five characters.
With Sima Zhao
Zhong Hui served as a trusted confidant of Sima Zhao and played a crucial role in helping Sima Zhao maintain control of the army after Sima Shi’s death. However, Sima Zhao became suspicious of Zhong Hui’s ambitions and took precautions against him.
With Deng Ai
Zhong Hui and Deng Ai both participated in the conquest of Shu but had different approaches. Zhong Hui resented Deng Ai’s achievement and falsely accused him of rebellion, leading to Deng Ai’s arrest and death.
With Jiang Wei
After Jiang Wei surrendered, Zhong Hui became very close friends with him. Jiang Wei encouraged Zhong Hui’s rebellion, hoping to use it to restore Shu Han. Both were killed together in the mutiny.
With Wei Guan
Wei Guan served as supervisor of the campaign and participated in falsely accusing Deng Ai. After Zhong Hui’s rebellion, Wei Guan escaped and organised the mutiny that killed Zhong Hui.
With Ji Kang
Zhong Hui was the main planner behind Ji Kang’s execution. According to some sources, this was because Ji Kang ignored Zhong Hui when he visited, causing Zhong Hui to bear a grudge.
Anecdotes
The five-character revision
Sima Shi was not satisfied with a memorial written by Yu Song. Yu Song thought hard but did not know how to revise it. Zhong Hui only changed five characters in the memorial text, and Sima Shi was extremely appreciative after reading it. This became the anecdote of the “five-character guest."
"Sweat does not dare to come out”
According to the Shishuo Xinyu, when Zhong Yu and Zhong Hui were young, they had a good reputation. Zhong Yao brought them to see Cao Pi. Cao Pi saw that Zhong Yu had sweat on his face and asked: “Why do you have sweat?” Zhong Yu replied: “Trembling and fearful, sweat pours like paste.” But he saw that Zhong Hui had no sweat on his face and asked: “Then why don’t you sweat?” Zhong Hui replied: “Trembling and fearful, sweat does not dare to come out.”
However, historically, Cao Pi died when Zhong Hui was less than two years old, so this anecdote was likely fabricated by the novelist.
Stealing wine without bowing
According to the Shishuo Xinyu, when Zhong Yu and Zhong Hui were children, they stole medicine wine to drink while Zhong Yao was taking a nap. Zhong Yao had actually awakened and was pretending to sleep to observe them. Zhong Yu bowed and then drank, while Zhong Hui drank without bowing. Later, the father asked Zhong Yu why he bowed. Zhong Yu said: “Wine is used to complete rites—I dare not not bow.” He asked Zhong Hui why he did not bow. Zhong Hui replied: “Stealing is originally not a rite, so I do not bow.”
Visiting Ji Kang
According to the Shishuo Xinyu, Zhong Hui wrote the Four Fundamentals Theory and wanted Ji Kang to see it. He carried it in his bosom and decided to visit Ji Kang, but he feared Ji Kang would question him, so he carried it in his bosom and did not dare to take it out. He threw it over the wall outside Ji Kang’s house and then ran away.
Zhong Hui was intelligent and talented and originally did not know Ji Kang. He invited some worthy and outstanding people of the time to go find Ji Kang together. Ji Kang was forging iron under a tree, and Xiang Xiu was helping him pull the bellows. Ji Kang swung his hammer and struck continuously, ignoring everyone, and after a long time did not say a word to Zhong Hui and the others.
Zhong Hui got up to leave. Ji Kang said: “What did you hear that made you come? What did you see that made you leave?”
Zhong Hui said: “I heard what I heard and came. I saw what I saw and left.”
According to some sources, Zhong Hui bore a grudge because of this and later used the Lü An case to persuade Sima Zhao to kill Ji Kang.
Imitating handwriting
Zhong Hui was skilled at imitating others’ handwriting. He forged letters from Quan Hui and Quan Yi to induce Quan Yi to surrender during the suppression of Zhuge Dan’s rebellion. He also forged letters from Deng Ai to make Sima Zhao suspicious of Deng Ai.
According to the Shishuo Xinyu, Zhong Hui imitated his nephew Xun Xu’s handwriting to steal Xun Xu’s sword, which was worth one million cash.
”Like viewing an armoury”
Pei Kai evaluated Zhong Hui: “Like viewing an armoury—dense and dense, only seeing spears and halberds in front.”
Achievements
- Helped Sima Zhao maintain control of the army after Sima Shi’s death
- Played a crucial role in suppressing Zhuge Dan’s rebellion
- Planned and led the conquest of Shu Han
- Accepted Jiang Wei’s surrender
- Achieved rank of Minister over the Masses (posthumously)
Behind the scenes
Historical sources
Zhong Hui’s biography appears in Records of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, where he is grouped with Wang Ling, Guanqiu Jian, Zhuge Dan, and Deng Ai. Chen Shou wrote: “Wang Ling had upright character and high standards. Guanqiu Jian had outstanding talent and insight. Zhuge Dan was strict, resolute, and awe-inspiring. Zhong Hui had refined strategy and calculation. All achieved fame and reached these honoured positions, yet all had great ambition but limited capacity, did not consider disaster and difficulty, and change came like releasing a trigger. Their clans were destroyed—is this not delusion and confusion?”
The rebellion
Zhong Hui’s rebellion has been interpreted in different ways. Some historians believe he was genuinely loyal to Wei and wanted to overthrow the Sima family. Others believe he was simply ambitious and wanted power for himself.
His close relationship with Jiang Wei and Jiang Wei’s encouragement of the rebellion suggest that Jiang Wei hoped to use Zhong Hui’s rebellion to restore Shu Han.
The conspiracy
Zhong Hui’s false accusation of Deng Ai and his own subsequent rebellion reflect the complex political situation in late Cao Wei. His ability to forge letters and manipulate situations shows his intelligence but also his lack of scruples.
Scholarship and calligraphy
Zhong Hui was not only a strategist but also a scholar and calligrapher. He wrote works on the Book of Changes and Laozi and was skilled in calligraphy, inheriting his father Zhong Yao’s talent.
Historical evaluations
Contemporary
Jiang Ji said: “Not an ordinary person.”
Sima Shi said: “This is truly a talent to assist a king!”
Fu Gu said: “Your ambition is great, but your capacity is limited, and achievements are difficult. Can you not be careful?”
Cao Mao praised Zhong Hui: “Zhong Hui managed military affairs and participated in planning strategy. He predicted the enemy and achieved victory and had the merit of planning. Yet he pushed away favour and firmly declined. His words were sincere, and he repeatedly declined. His will could not be changed.”
Xiahou Ba said: “There is Zhong Shiji—this person manages court government. He is a worry for Wu and Shu.” He also said: “There is Zhong Shiji. Although this person is young, he will ultimately be a worry for Wu and Shu. However, if he is not an extraordinary person, he also cannot be used.”
Xin Xianying said: “Zhong Hui acts arbitrarily in affairs—this is not the way to remain subordinate for long.”
Zhong Yu warned: “Zhong Hui relies on schemes and is difficult to protect—he cannot be exclusively entrusted.”
Later historians
Chen Shou wrote: “Zhong Hui had refined strategy and calculation… All had great ambition but limited capacity, did not consider disaster and difficulty, and change came like releasing a trigger. Their clans were destroyed—is this not delusion and confusion?”
Legacy
Zhong Hui is remembered as a brilliant strategist and scholar who achieved the conquest of Shu Han but then rebelled and was killed. His story represents both the heights of achievement and the dangers of ambition.
His role in helping Sima Zhao maintain control of the army and his achievements in suppressing rebellions and conquering Shu demonstrate his strategic ability. However, his false accusation of Deng Ai and his own rebellion show his ambition and lack of scruples.
His scholarship and calligraphy, though less well-known than his military achievements, show his versatility as a scholar-official.
His death in the mutiny, together with Jiang Wei, marks the tragic end of both the Shu Han state and his own career.
Timeline
- 225 CE: Born in Changshe County, Yingchuan Commandery
- c. 230 CE: Met Jiang Ji at age five; recognised as “not an ordinary person”
- 244 CE: Began career as Gentleman of the Secretariat
- 247 CE: Promoted to Gentleman of the Palace
- 249 CE: Appointed Palace Attendant; Gaopingling Incident occurred
- 254 CE: Granted Marquis within the Passes when Cao Mao ascended throne; followed Sima Shi in attacking Guanqiu Jian
- 255 CE: Helped Sima Zhao maintain control of army after Sima Shi’s death; appointed Gentleman of the Yellow Gate; enfeoffed as Marquis of Dongwu Pavilion
- 257 CE: Mother Zhang Changpu died; predicted Zhuge Dan’s rebellion; participated in suppressing Zhuge Dan’s rebellion; appointed Gentleman of the Palace in Grand General’s office; enfeoffed as Marquis of Chen (declined)
- 261 CE: Appointed Colonel Director of Retainers; planned execution of Ji Kang
- 262 CE: Appointed General Who Guards the West with Credentials and Commander of Guanzhong
- 263 CE: Led conquest of Shu Han; blocked at Jiange; accepted Jiang Wei’s surrender; appointed Minister over the Masses and County Marquis (posthumously)
- 264 CE: Falsely accused Deng Ai; arrested Deng Ai; rebelled; killed in mutiny on 18th day of 1st month (3 March), age 40
See also
References
- Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms, Volume 28, Biography of Zhong Hui.
- Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms.
- Fang Xuanling. Book of Jin.
- Liu Yiqing. Shishuo Xinyu.
- Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, various volumes.